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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT: 



ERRATA 
The numbers to Figs. 50 and 51 should read 51 and 50. 



THE 

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 

OF 

OIL ENGINES 

WITH FULL DIRECTIONS FOR 

ERECTING, TESTING, INSTALLING 
RUNNING AND REPAIRING 

Including descriptions of American and English 
KEROSENE OIL ENGINES 

BY 

A. H. GOLDINGHAM 

Mechanical Engineer, Member American Society of Mechanical Engineers 
Author o/^ The Gas Engine in Principle and Practice " 

Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged 



NEW YORK : 
SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, 123 LIBERTY ST. 

LONDON : 

E. & F. N. SPON, Limited, 57 HAYMARKET, S.W. 

1910 






Copyright, 1900 

Copyright, 1904 

By A. H. GOLDINGHAM 

Entered at Stationers' Hall 



Copyright, 1910 
By A. H. GOLDINGHAM 



THE BURR PRINTING HOUSE, FRANKFORT AND JACOB STS. 
NEW YORK, U S. A. 



©CU259345 



PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION 

The previous editions being exhausted the third 
edition of this work has been prepared to meet the 
increasing demand for a reliable handbook on Oil 
Engines. 

Necessary revisions in the third edition have been 
made in an endeavor to completely cover the subject 
both with regard to Modern Oil Engines as well as 
to those previously made. In Chapter I the text of 
some pages has been changed with the addition of 
descriptive matter and illustrations of Recent Oil 
Spraying and Vaporizing Devices. In Chapter II on 
Design and Construction considerable revision has 
been rendered necessary to conform to up-to-date 
practice. Additions have been made to Chapter III on 
Testing. Numerous formulae have been added, others 
have been changed while each has been carefully 
checked and compared with the design of the best and 
most successful engines built. Other additions have 
been made to Chapters IV, V, and VI, as well as to 
Chapters X, XII and XIII. 

Many new illustrations have been prepared with the 
greatest care regardless of cost. 

The writer wishes to acknowledge his obligation 
to all who have assisted him in the work of revision 
and to thank the different manufacturers for the in- 
formation, photographs, diagrams, etc., placed at his 
disposal by them. 

A. H. G. 

New York, December, 1909. 



PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION 

The first edition having been exhausted, and in 
order to meet the continued and increasing demand for 
this work, a new and larger edition is now presented. 

It has been the endeavor of the writer to embody in 
the present edition the most recent information on the 
subject. Chapters on "Oil Engine Troubles," "Fuels" 
with numerous tables, and "Miscellaneous," including 
fire insurance rules, have been added, while large-sized 
oil engines and portable engines have received a more 
extended description. 

Reference to all types of engines has been made 
about which information could be secured. 

The writer is indebted to Professor William Robin- 
son for permission to reproduce tables from "Gas and 
Petroleum Engines ;" also to Messrs. Clifford Richard- 
son and E. C. Wallace for the matter given regarding 
Texas crude oil ; to the "Scientific American" for 
Fig. 92a. 



PREFACE 



This work has been written with the intention of 
supplying practical information regarding the kero- 
sene or oil engine, and in response to frequent re- 
quests received by the writer to recommend such a 
book. 

Whilst many works have been published on the 
subject of gas engines, some of which refer to or 
describe the working of the oil engine, no other book, 
it is believed, is devoted entirely to the oil engine 
in detail. 

The work, it is hoped, will be found useful to the 
draughtsman, the engine attendant, as well as to those 
who own or are about to install Oil Engines. 

The classification of vaporizers has been adhered 
to as made some few years ago, and a representative 
engine with each type is described. 

The matter on design and construction is founded 
on practical experience, the formulae, it is believed, 
being in accordance with the best modern practice. 

Chapter III. on Testing is based on the writer's 

personal experience in the testing-room. 

vii 



Vlll PREFACE. 

The writer is particularly indebted to Mr. George 
Richmond for many valuable suggestions, and also for 
reading the proof-sheets, and he wishes to acknowledge 
assistance from many firms, amongst which may be 
mentioned Ingersoll Sargeant Drill Company for 
Table III., Mr. Frank Richards for Table II., The 
De La Vergne Company for Table IV., London 
Engineer, Tables V. and VI. Table I. is partly taken 
from Mr. William Norris's book on the Gas Engine, 
and Tables VII., VIII., IX., and X., at the end of the 
book, relating to different oils, are taken (with per- 
mission) from Mr. Boverton Redwood's valuable 
work on Petroleum. And to the Engineering Nezvs 
for permission to use Figs. 44b and 44c. The Crosby 
Steam Gauge Company have also supplied informa- 
tion relating to the indicator and planimeter. 

A. H. GOLDINGHAM. 

New York, November 1, 1900. 



CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTORY. PAGE 

Historical— Classification of Oil Engines— Various 
Vaporizers — Different Igniting and Spraying De- 
vices — The Different Cycles of Valve Movements 1-19 



CHAPTER II. 

ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 

Simplicity in Construction and Arrangement of Parts 
— Comparison of Oil and Gas Engines — Cyl- 
inders, Different Types — Cylinder Clearance — 
Crank-shaft, Dimensions and Formulae — Balanc- 
ing of Crank-shafts Described — Connecting-rods, 
Strengths, etc. — Piston, Piston-rings — Piston 
speed — Fly-wheels, Formula for — Air and Ex- 
haust Cams — Cylinder Lubricators — Valves and 
Valve-boxes — Velocity of Air through Valves — 
Crank-shaft Bearings — Proportions of Engine 
Frame — Crank-pin Dimensions — Valve Mechan- 
isms, Gearing and Levers — Governing Devices — 
Exhaust Bends — Oil-supply Pump — Oil-tank and 
Filter — Comparison of Horizontal and Vertical 
Type Engines, with Advantages of Each — Two- 
cylinder Engines Discussed — Assembling of Oil- 
engines — Scraping in Bearings — Fitting of Piston 
and Piston-rings — Fitting Connecting-rod Bear- 
ings — Fitting Air and Exhaust Valves — Test- 
ing Water-jackets — Fly-wheel Keys — Oil-supply 
Pipes — Cylinder Made in Two or More Parts, . . 20-58 
ix 



X CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER III. 

TESTING ENGINES. 

PAGE 

Object of Testing — Comparison with Steam-engines — 
Different Records to be Taken — Diagram for set- 
ting Valves — Preparing for Test — Heating of Va- 
porizer — Starting — Difficulties of Starting — Com- 
pression, How to Test — Leakage of Valves and 
Cylinder — Lubrication of Piston and Bearings — ■ 
Easing Piston — Synonymous Terms for Power De- 
veloped — Indicated Horse-power — Brake, Horse- 
power — Indicator Fully Described — Reducing 
Motions — Planimeters — Indicator-cards described 
in Detail and Analyzed — Defects as Shown by 
Indicator — How to Remedy Same — Early and 
Late Ignition, How to Alter — The Compression 
and Expansion Lines — Choked Exhaust — Mean 
Effective Pressure, How to Increase — Back Pres- 
sure of Exhaust — Tachometers — Fuel-consump- 
tion Test Fully Described — Mechanical Efficiency 
— Thermal Efficiency — Table of Disposition of 
Heat — Valve Diagram — Exhaust Gases — Complete 
and Incomplete Combustion — Testing the Flash- 
point of Kerosene — Viscosometer, . . . . . . 59-95 



CHAPTER IV. 

COOLING WATER-TANKS AND OTHER DETAILS. 

Water Connections — Capacity of Tanks Required- 
Gravitation System of Circulation — Water-pumps 
— Connection to City Water Main — Temperature 
of Outlet Water — Emptying Pipes in Frosty 
Weather — Salt Water — Exhaust Silencers — Brick 
Pit, How to Construct — Exhaust-Gas Deodorizer, 



CONTENTS. XI 

PAGE 
How to Connect — Connecting Circulating Water 
to Exhaust-pipe— Self-starters, Why Necessary 
— Utilizing Waste Heat of Exhaust Gases and of 
Cooling Water, Different Methods — Exhaust 
Temperature, 96-110 



CHAPTER V. 

OIL ENGINES DRIVING DYNAMOS. 

Isolated Plants — Advantages of Oil Engines as Com- 
pared with Gas and Steam Engines — Installation 
of Plant — Foundation, How to Build, Ingredients 
— Correct Location of Engine and Dynamo — • 
Belts — Balance-wheel on Armature Shaft — Power 
Required for Incandescent and Arc Lamps — 
Losses of Power by Belt and Otherwise — Regu- 
lation of Engine Required for Electric Lighting — 
Direct-connected Plants, Advantages of Same — 
Variations in Incandescent Lights, Causes, How 
to Remedy — Silencing Air-suction, .. .. .. 111-122 



CHAPTER VI. 

OIL ENGINES CONNECTED TO AIR-COMPRESSORS, WATER-PUMPS, ETC. 

Direct-connected and Geared Air-compressing Outfits, 
with Dimensions and Pressures Obtained — Calcu- 
lations of Horse-power Required — Tables of Pres- 
sures and Other Data — Efficiencies at Different 
Altitudes — Pumping Outfits Described in Detail, 
with Dimensions — How to Calculate Horse-power 
Required — Oil Engines Driving Ice and Refrig- 
erating Machines, Calculations of Power Required 
— Friction-clutches, 123-138 



Xll CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER VII. 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR RUNNING OIL ENGINES. 



PAGE 



General Instructions and Remarks — Cylinder Lubri- 
cating Oil — Instructions in Detail as to Running 
Hornsby-Akroyd Type, the Crossley Type, the 
Campbell Type, and the Priestman Type of Oil 
Engine — General Remarks — Regulation of Speed 
— How to Reverse Direction of Running of En- 
gine, with Diagrams of Valve Settings, . . . . 139-156 



CHAPTER VIII. 

REPAIRS. 

Drawing Piston — Taking Off Piston-ring — Grinding 
in of Valves — Adjustment of Crank-shaft and 
Connecting-rod Bearings — How to Fit New 
Piston-ring to Cylinder — Fitting New Skew and 
Spur Gear — Renewing Governor Parts, . . . . 157-160 



CHAPTER IX. 

OIL ENGINE TROUBLES. 

Ignition — Electrical Connections— Tube Igniter — 
Automatic Igniter— Oil Supply— Air Supply- 
Knocking— Loss of Power— Piston Blowing- 
Explosions in Silencer— Water Leakage, . . . . 161-167 



CONTENTS. ' Xlll 

CHAPTER X. 

VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 

PAGE 

General Description, with Illustrations of Different 
American and English Oil Engines — Method 
of Working — Sectional Cuts — The Crossley — The 
Cundall — The Campbell — The Priestman — The 
Mietz & Weiss — The Hornsby-Akroyd — The 
Diesel — The Rites Governor — Britannia Co.'s 
Engine — International Power Co. — The Barker, 168-199 

CHAPTER XL 

PORTABLE ENGINES. 

General Description of Portable Oil Engines — Por- 
table Electric Lighting — Water Cooling Appa- 
ratus — Crossley — Mietz & Weiss — Portable Air 
Compressor — Hornsby-Akroyd Traction Engine, 200-205 

CHAPTER XII. 

LARGE SIZED ENGINES. 

Comparison of Cycles — Relative Cost of Installation 
and Operation of Steam, Gas, and Oil Engines 
— Mietz & Weiss — Diesel — Hornsby-Akroyd — 
Sectional Views — Tests — Use of Crude Oil — 
Moore & Co. Vaporizer or Producer — Fair- 
banks Morse Engine, 206-229 

CHAPTER XIII. 

FUELS. 

Description of Various Fuels — Beaumont Crude Oil 
— Russian and American Crude Oil — Analyses — 
Various Tables — California Crude-Fuel Oil, . . 230-240 



XIV CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

PAGE 

Comparison of U. S. and American Measures and 
Weights — Various Tables — Fire Insurance — 
Tests of Various Engines, 241-251 



TABLES 

PAGE 

I. Sizes of Crank-shafts, 27 

II. Various Air Pressures, 126-127 

III. Efficiencies of Air Compressors at Differ- 

ent Altitudes, 129 

IV. Mean Pressure of Diagram of Gas 

(Ammonia) Compressor, 135 

V. Tests of Priestman Oil Engine, . . . . 178 
VI. Tests of 25 B. H. P. Hornsby-Akroyd Oil 

Engine, 186 

VII. Relative Cost of Installation and Operation, 

Gas, Steam and Oil Engines, . . . . 209 

VIII. Tests of Diesel Engine, 220 

IX. Characteristics of Oils, 234 

X. Beaumont Oil, 234 

XI. 1 

XII. V Characteristics of Different Oils, . . . . 235 

XIII. ) 

XIV. Calorific Power of Various Descriptions of 

Petroleum, 236 

XV. Composition, Physical Properties, etc., of 

Various Descriptions of Petroleum, . . 237 

XVI. Oil Fuel, 238 

XVII. Calorific Power of Crude Petroleum, . . 238 

' I Tests of Various Oil Engines . . . . 248-251 



XV 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Abel Oil-tester 

Air-compressing Outfit, Portable 

American Oil Engine Co.'s Engine 

Apparatus for Open Fire Test 

Automatic Air Inlet- Valve .... 

Barker Engine ....... 

Beau de Rochas Cycle, Diagram .... 

Britannia Co.'s Engine, Sectional Views to face page 

Campbell Diagrams 

Campbell Vaporizer . ... to face page 

Campbell Type Engine 

Cams, Air and Exhaust to face page 

Connecting-rods . . . . to face page 

Connecting-rod Bearings 

Connecting-rod, Phosphor-bronze .... 
Cooling Water Tower to face page 
Cooling Water Tower and Radiator . to face page 
Cooling Radiator with Electrically Operated Fan At- 
tachment to face page 



PAGE 

91 

204 

195, 196 
91 



197, 



Crank-shaft bearing 
Crank-shafts, Balanced 
Crank-shafts, Slab Type 
Crosby Indicator 
Crossley Diagrams 
Crossley Vaporizer 
Crossley Type Engine 
Crossley New Type Engine 
Cundall Type Engine . 
Cylinders 
Cylinders 



to face pages 
to face page 



to face pages 
to face page 



to face page 
to face page 



4i 
198 

16 
192 

174 
12 

173 
36 
30 

159 
3i 
98 

99 



99 

40, 54 

28 

27 

68 

170 

4, 6 

169 

170 

171 

32 

26 



XV111 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAGE 



213, 214, 2l6, 

to face page 
(Sectional 



. 183 
128 
186 

228, 229 

130 

60 

155 
219 
218 
212 



De la Vergne Engine, Sectional Views, to face pages 227, 228 

De la Vergne Vertical Type .... 

De la Vergne Vertical Type and Air Compressor 

De la Vergne Indicator Diagram 

De la Vergne Indicator Diagram 

Diagram of H. P. for Air Compressing 

Diagram of Valve-settings . 

Diagrams, Reversing Engine and Cams 

Diesel Motor ..... 

Diesel Motor, Indicator Diagram 

Diesel Motor, Sectional View 

Direct-connected Air-compressing Plant 

View) 

Dynamo Fly-wheel .... 

Electric Spark Igniters 

Engine and Dynamo, Belt-driven 

Engine and Refrigerating Machine 

Engine Connected to Water-pump 

Engine Connected to Water-pump 

Engine Foundation 

Exhaust Silencing Pit 

Exhaust Washing Device 

Fly-wheels . 

Foundation and Oil Tank 

Friction-clutch 

Geared Air-Compressing Plant 

Governors .... 

Governors. Centrifugal Type 

Governor, Hit-and-miss Type 

Heating Lamp 

Heating Arrangement 

Hill Self-recording Speed Counter 

Hornsby-Akroyd Engine and Dynamo . 1 18, 187, 

Hornsby-Akroyd Horizontal Type . to face page 

Hornsby-Akroyd, Sectional View . to face page 

Hornsby-Akroyd Sprayer to face page 



to face page 



to face page 
Small Type 



to face page 
to face page 

to face page 
to face page 
to face page 



124 

116 

8 

112 

132 
129 

131 
114 
ior 
102 

34 

114 

138 

126 

48 

44 

47 

142 

iog 

85 
188 
182 
212 

10 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



XIX 



Hornsby-Akroyd Vaporizer . . to face page 

Hornsby-Akroyd Vertical Type 
Hornsby-Akroyd 125 H. P. . . to face page 

Hornsby-Akroyd 250 H. P. Oil Engine Direct Con- 
nected to Compressor to face page 
Indicator Cock 
Indicator Cards, Various to face page 
Indicator Diagram 
Indicator Diagram 
Indicator Diagram 
Indicator Diagram 
Indicator Diagram 
Indicator Diagram, Light Spring 
Indicator Diagram, Varying Pressures 
Indicator Diagrams, Hornsby-Akroyd 
Indicator, Reducing Motion 
Johnston Oil Engine . ... to face page 

Johnston Oil Engine Diagram . 

Lucke & Verplank Vaporizer . . to face page 

Lubricator ...... 

Mietz & Weiss Oil Consumption Diagram 

Mietz & Weiss, Indicator Diagram 

Mietz & Weiss Engine and Dynamo, Direct connected 



PAGE 

2 

187 
210 

124 
66 
24 
76 
77 
79 
80 
82 
89 
46 

184 

67 
190 

191 
16 
58 
179 
181 
120 



Mietz & Weiss Type Engine 



to face pages 178, 180, 210 



Oil Engine with Testing Apparatus Applied 

Oil-filter 

Oil-pump 

Oil-Supply Pumps 

Pistons, Section of 

Piston with Piston-rings 

Planimeters 

Planimeter in position 

Portable Electric Lighting Outfit 

Portable Oil Engine . 

Priestman Engine 

Priestman Indicator Diagrams 



to face page 
to face page 



to face page 



62 

49 

144 

50 
32 
56 

72 

74 
202 



202, 203 
. 176 

177 



XX 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 











PAGE 


Priestman Sprayer 




14 


Priestman Vaporizer 








13 


Rites Governor . 








189 


Self-starter . 








IO6 


Silencing Device 








104 


Sprayers, Oil 






. to face pages 


14, l6 


Spur-gearing 








44 


Starting Cam 








143 


Tachometer 






. . " . 


84 


Tachometer, portable 








85 


Testing Apparatus 






. to face pages 


64, 65 


Testing Oil-pump 








147 


Traction Engine . 






to face page 


204 


Two-cycle Plan . 








17 


Valve-box . 






to face page 


38 


Valve-closing Springs 






to face page 


42 


Valve-levers 








146 


Valve Mechanism 








44 


Valves, Air and Exhaust 






42 


Vaporizer, C. C. Moore & Co. . 


222, 224 


Vaporizer, Fairbanks-Morse 
Viscosometer . . . . . 


to face page 


224 
94 


Water-circulating Pump 




102 


Water-cooling Tank and Connections 




97 


Worm Gear 




. 


. 


43 



CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTORY— VAPORIZERS, SPRA YERS, 
IGNITORS, CYCLES, ETC. 

The oil engines treated of herein are internal com- 
bustion engines burning kerosene, fuel oil or crude 
oil, petroleum, coal oil, distillate, paramne, etc. Such 
fuels have a specific gravity varying from 78 to 96 ° or 
50 Beaume to 14 Beaume and have a flashpoint from 
75° to 300 Fahr. The oil engines described are 
chiefly self-contained, that is, they are gas engines with 
the addition of a vaporizing apparatus which can con- 
vert the fuels above referred to, either in the crude 
state as it issues from the ground, or in a semi-re- 
fined or refined state into vapor or gas within either 
the vaporizers or cylinders, ignite it with the conse- 
quent evolution of the heat stored in the fuel and con- 
vert same into power. 

The use of heavy oil for producing power in internal 
combustion engines appears to have received the at- 
tention of inventors as early as 1790, though no satis- 
factory practical kerosene or crude-oil engine is re- 
corded as having been made until about 1870. Those 
engines using the lighter grade fuels, such as benzine, 
gasoline, or naphtha, were commonly used previous 
to the invention of the kerosene-oil engine. The prob- 



2 OIL ENGINES 

lem of efficiently producing a vapor and suitable ex- 
plosive mixture of air with such vapor, from these 
light oils was comparatively a simple matter. 

With the engine required to consume crude oil or the 
other fuels above named having a higher boiling point 
than gasoline and requiring different treatment to en- 
sure proper vaporization and to consume all parts of 
the heavier fuels, the problem of developing an appa- 
ratus to operate satisfactorily under all conditions and 
under changing loads was more complex. 

The following descriptions will show how efficiently 
and satisfactorily the present engines operate. 

Igniters. — The first oil engines built had their 
charge of vaporized oil and air ignited by means of 
the flame igniter, which has, however, now entirely 
given place to the four following means of ignition : 

(a) Hot surface ignition, aided by compression. 

(b) Hot tube. 

(c) Electric igniter. 

(d) High compression only. 

The first-named type of igniter is illustrated in Fig. I. 
In this instance the heated walls of the vaporizer act 
as the igniter, aided by the heat generated during com- 
pression of the gases. The chamber being first heated, 
afterward the proper temperature is maintained by the 
heat caused by the internal combustion of the gases. 
The best-known vaporizer and igniter of this type is 
that in the Hornsby-Akroyd Oil Engine. Various 
other somewhat similar devices in which sufficient heat 
is maintained to cause ignition automatically are also 
now being made. 

The second type, that of the hot tube, is shown in 




^^Sb^S 



" V — ) 




INTRODUCTORY. 3 

Figs. 2 and 3. This igniter consists simply of a 
porcelain or metal tube fitted into the vaporizer or 
cylinder wall. It is closed at one end, the other end 
being open to the cylinder. It is heated by a lamp, 
as shown in Figs. 2 and 3, over part of its length. 
When compression due to the inward stroke of the 
piston takes place in the cylinder the explosive mixture 
,is compressed into the tube and is ignited by coming 
in contact with the heated portion of it. Porcelain or 
nickel-steel tubes are preferable to wrought iron, all 
of which substances are used for this purpose. 

The electric igniter, which is at present more largely 
used for gas and gasoline engines than -for oil engines, 
is shown in Fig. 4. Those illustrated are known as 
the " jump-spark" and the make-and-break types. 

The jump-spark (Fig. 4) is preferred for high 
speeds, as it has no moving parts inside the cylinder. 
With this type the igniter plug containing the termi- 
nals is screwed into the cylinder cover. The method 
of making electrical connections is shown in principle 
at Fig. 4. Connection is made from the battery 
through the primary circuit of the Rhumkorfr" or spark 
coil to the completely insulated spring which is operated 
by the cam. The other connection passes from the 
battery to the other spring operated by the cam-shaft 
or other moving part of the engine. The electrodes or 
terminals of the plug are connected to the secondary 
circuit. In operation where a vibrator is used in con- 
nection with the spark coil the cam at the proper time 
of sparking closes the circuit, causing a series of sparks 
to jump across the terminals in the cylinder and ignite 
the gases. 



4 OIL ENGINES. 

The make-and-break type of igniter is shown in 
Fig. 4a. This type consists of one well-insulated sta- 
tionary terminal and one terminal H mechanically 
operated. The ignition is caused by the separation of 
the two terminals, which produces a spark between 
them. Fig. 4a shows this igniter in connection with a 
magneto oscillator, which is frequently employed to 
furnish electrical current instead of the battery. With 
this apparatus the current is generated by the quick 
movement of the inductor, which takes the place of 
the armature in the ordinary dynamo, and which is 
caused to partly revolve by movement of the arm suit- 
ably actuated from the cam-shaft or other moving part 
of the engine. The magneto is a very simple device, 
consisting only of stationary steel magnets K, a cast- 
iron inductor which takes the place of the ordinary 
armature, and two coils imbedded in the frame. The 
action is as follows : The inductor arm C is raised by 
the roller A on the disc B attached to cam-shaft. 
The spring D, shown in Fig. 4a, is compressed. When 
the arm is released the inductor has a quick, oscillating 
motion, caused by spring D, which produces a strong 
electrical current. This current passes through con- 
nection J to insulated igniter point, and through the 
movable electrode G back to the induction apparatus. 
The movement of inductor lever by the heavy spring 
allows the collar on rod E to hit the arm attached to 
movable electrode, thus separating the two electrodes 
and causing a spark to pass between them. 

A spark plug is shown in section at Fig. 4b, made 
by A. W. King. Advantages are claimed for this type 



INTRODUCTORY. 5 

of plug because of the increased sparking surface of 
the terminal, which is formed of an inner knife-edged 
disc placed concentric within a thick-wall chamber, 
which constitutes the outer terminal. Other forms of 
electrical igniters are the New Standard and the Split- 
dorf jump-spark apparatus. 

The fourth-named type of ignition, that due to com- 
pression in the cylinder alone, is found only with the 
Diesel motor. 

Advantages are claimed for each of these igniting 
devices by the various manufacturers using them. "The 
electrical igniter is easily controlled and is reliable, but 
the batteries in unskilled hands sometimes give 
trouble, and it is essential that the parts forming the 
contacts be kept clean and in good condition. 

The tube igniter always requires heating by the ex- 
ternal heating lamp, upon which it is dependent, like 
all types of vaporizers which require external heat ; so 
likewise is also the tube dependent entirely upon it. 
The former difficulty with ignition tubes and their 
frequent bursting has now been minimized by the use 
of nickel alloy, porcelain or other material more suit- 
able than wrought iron for this purpose. 

The hot surface type of igniter formerly gave trouble 
caused by its temperature cooling down at light loads. 
This type, however, which has now been adopted in 
various forms, has been designed to overcome this dif- 
ficulty, and can now be relied upon to keep hot when 
running at light loads. 

Vaporizers. — As already stated, the problem of 
efficiently vaporizing petroleum was the most difficult 
feature to encounter in designing oil engines. 



O OIL ENGINES. 

The present universal use of heavy oil engines is com- 
plete evidence of how any former difficulty has 
been thoroughly overcome, and examination of the 
various modern vaporizers shows extreme simplicity 
in operation. 

The fuels used in the oil engines here discussed 
(crude oil, kerosene, etc.), in order to be properly 
vaporized, require to be broken up into the form of 
mist or oil vapor by spraying, or by a current of air, 
and then heated to a temperature above the boiling 
point. The oil vapor must then be thoroughly mixed 
with air, in order to procure complete combustion. This 
process is performed by various methods, as is shown 
in the following description of vaporizers. 

The composition of various fuels is discussed in 
Chapter XIII. 

Several oil engines having a method of vaporization 
are now made where the oil is injected directly into 
the cylinder or where it is inhaled with the air, and 
where both are closely regulated similar to the Priest- 
man type of oil engine. The mixture of oil vapor and 
air being carried on by compression in the cylinder, 
ignition is caused by an electric or tube igniter. The 
heat from the exhaust is utilized to raise the tempera- 
ture of the chamber through which the oil passes to 
the cylinder, which, with the heat caused by compres- 
sion, is sufficient to cause vaporization and a proper 
mixing with the air to form an explosive mixture, the 
chamber, which is heated by the exhaust in operation 
being first heated by a lamp. 

Theoretically, the amount of air required for each 



INTRODUCTORY. 7 

pound of kerosene or oil vapor is approximately 200 
cubic feet at 60 ° Fahr. atmospheric pressure. From 
calculation of the amount of air taken into the cylinder, 
it will, however, be noted that this amount in practice 
is much greater. In some instances it is more than 
twice that amount, or 400 cubic feet. This greater 
volume of air is required owing to the presence in the 
cylinder, in operation, of a residue of the burnt 
products of previous explosions and to other impuri- 
ties causing the efficient combustion of the oxygen of 
the air with the oil vapor to be somewhat retarded. 

A method of starting the oil engine has of recent 
years been used in which alcohol, gasoline, or naphtha 
is burnt for a few minutes instead of kerosene. This 
method is advantageous in that the engine when cold 
can be started without the use of external heater. The 
lighter fuel is supplied to the vaporizer or cylinder un- 
til the vaporizing attachment has become heated by in- 
ternal combustion to the temperature necessary for 
vaporizing the heavier fuel; then the fuel supply is 
changed, the supply of lighter fuel being stopped. 
Where an automatic igniter or vaporizer of Type 4 
is used an independent electric igniter is employed to 
ignite the gases, and which is only in action until the 
vaporizer is heated. 

The different types of vaporizers have been classified 
as follows : 

1. The vaporizer into which the charge of oil is 
injected by a spraying nozzle being connected to cylin- 
der through a valve. 



8 OIL ENGINES. 

2. That into which the oil is injected, together with 
some air, the larger volume of air, however, entering 
the cylinder through separate valve. 

3. That vaporizer in which the oil and all the air 
supply (passing over it) is injected, but being without 
spraying device. 

4. The type into which oil is injected directly, air 
being drawn into the cylinder by means of a separate 
valve, the explosive mixture being formed only with 
compression. 

With each type of vaporizer some advantage is 
claimed, but corresponding disadvantage can perhaps 
be named. For instance, in type 1, though the mixture 
of oil and air is more complete, and the vaporizing 
probably greater than in the other types, yet the system 
of having an explosive mixture at any other place than 
in the cylinder and at any other period than at the 
time of actual ignition may be urged as a great dis- 
advantage to this system. 

With class 4 the mixture of air and oil may not be 
so complete, and the initial pressure in the cylinder 
consequent upon explosion less than the pressure ob- 
tained with other types; yet the extreme simplicity of 
this type is an advantage in daily use which cannot be 
overestimated. 

With class 2 the highest mean effective pressure is 
obtained and the lowest consumption of oil per H. P. 
is recorded, but where a heating lamp burning con- 
tinuously is required then on the heating lamp depends 
the efficiency of the engine itself. 

Lucre and Verplank Vaporizer. — An apparatus 
for vaporizing crude or fuel oil is shown at Fig. Jc ; it 
consists of a chamber containing liquid fuel surrounded 




Fig. 4&. 




v///;ww;mm 






1 


1 5 - 




1 si 

1 o 






Fig. 4. 



{To face p. 8) 



INTRODUCTORY. 9 

by an exhaust heating jacket. The fuel is maintained 
at a temperature corresponding to its boiling point, and 
freely gives up vapor without overheating or carboniz- 
ing. The piping arrangement allows liquid oil to be 
constantly present in the chamber. The fuel enters at 
the bottom, and after vaporization, some is blown off 
through the connection leading to the condenser while 
the rest enters a mixing and proportioning valve sup- 
plying the engine with correct clean explosive mixture. 
If the load on the engine does not require the full 
amount of vapor, it is condensed. The lower blow-off 
cock allows the liquid residue carbon to be disposed of 
when crude or fuel oils are used. When using dis- 
tillate, kerosene, etc., the blow-off is dispensed with. 
Fig. jc shows the pressure type of vaporizer, but by 
breaking the pipe between condenser and feed and in- 
serting a constant level open cap, vapor is generated at 
atmospheric pressure, then one or both check valves 
are omitted. 

The Hornsby-Akroyd vaporizer is shown at Fig. 
I, and also as it is at present manufactured in Fig. 76, 
which illustrates a complete section of this engine. 
The oil jn this method of vaporizing is injected 
through the spray nipple, as shown in Fig. 5, directly 
into the vaporizer by the oil-supply pump. The injec- 
tion of oil into the vaporizer takes place only during 
the air-suction stroke. The lever which actuates the 
air-valve also simultaneously operates the oil-pump. 
When the piston is at the outward end of the cylinder, 
the suction period being then completed, the cylinder 
is filled with atmospheric air, and the vaporizing 
chamber, which is at all times open to the cylinder, is 
also at the same time filled with oil vapor. 

The compression stroke of the piston then com- 



10 OIL ENGINES. 

mences; the atmospheric air in the cylinder is thus 
driven through the contracted opening between the 
cylinder and the vaporizer into the vaporizer itself, al- 
ready filled with the oil vapor. The oil enters the 
vaporizer in the form of a thin spray or sprays and 
impinges on the cast-iron vaporizer wall on the oppo- 
site side, and then forms a vapor which afterwards 
mixes with air. Two forms of oil injectors are shown 
in the accompanying illustration, Fig. 5a being that 
used in connection with the later type of Hornsby- 
Akroyd vaporizer, which is partly water- jacketed; in 
this type a circular passage is made through the 
water- jacketed part of the vaporizer, into which the 
oil-spray sleeve is fitted. The water circulating around 
the vaporizer maintains the whole at a low tempera- 
ture. Fig. 5 shows the older type of oil inlet sleeve 
and sprayer. Another form of oil injector made by 
the English makers of this engine is shown at Fig. 95. 
In this type the water jacket is eliminated, the heat be- 
ing carried away by the surrounding air and 
by the fuel passing through it as it is pumped to the 
vaporizer. The steel spray nozzle in this type is a 
loose piece, being held in place by the pressure of the 
studs holding the sleeve containing the valve against 
the vaporizer. After the oil is injected into the 
vaporizer the compression stroke commences as this 
proceeds; the mixture, which at first is too 
rich to explode in the vaporizer, gradually becomes 
more diluted with the air, and when the com- 
pression stroke is completed the mixture of oil, vapor 
and air attains proper explosive proportions. The 
mixture is then ignited simply by the hot walls of this 




WATER OUTLET 



Fig. 5. 



(To face p. 10.) 



INTRODUCTORY. 1 1 

same vaporizing chamber and also by the heat gener- 
ated by compression. No other means of ignition is 
necessary. No heating lamp is required to maintain 
the necessary temperature of this vaporizer ; a lamp 
is, however, required to heat it for a few minutes 
before starting. 

The Crossley method of vaporizing. This vapor- 
izer is shown in section in Fig. 2. It consists of three 
main parts, the body, the passages, and the chimney 
cover. There are no valves about the vaporizer itself; 
it is arranged to keep hot, and while not in contact 
with the cooled cylinder is near to the vapor inlet valve 
to which it delivers its charges. The passages inside 
which vaporization of the oil takes place are detach- 
able. 

The wrought-iron ignition tube is placed below the 
vaporizer communicating directly with the cylinder. A 
heating lamp is always required to heat the vaporizer 
and maintain the ignition tube at proper red heat. The 
method of vaporizing is as follows : 

When the suction stroke of the piston commences the 
oil inlet valve is automatically lifted from its seat and 
allows oil to be drawn into the vaporizer through it. 
The vaporizer blocks having been heated by the inde- 
pendent lamp, and likewise the chimney being hot also, 
heated air is drawn in passing first through the aper- 
tures in the sides of the chimney communicating with 
the passages of vaporizer blocks. The air is thus thor- 
oughly heated, and next it passes over the heated cast- 
iron blocks. To these blocks the oil also flows from 
the oil measurer. The heated air here mingles with 



12 OIL ENGINES. 

the oil and vaporizes it, and the two together properly 
mixed are drawn into the cylinder through the vapor 
valve. Simultaneously, while the above process of 
vaporization is proceeding, air is also entering the 
cylinder through the air-inlet valve on the top of the 
cylinder. Thus, when the suction stroke of the piston 
is completed the cylinder is full of heated oil vapor 
drawn in through the vapor valve, too rich to explode 
by itself, and also atmospheric air drawn in through the 
air valve. Both elements are then compressed by the 
inward stroke of the piston completing the mixture of 
the oil, vapor and air. 

Fig. 3 shows the latest type of Crossley vaporizer 
which only requires heating when starting the engine. 
The fuel is injected directly into the vaporizer through 
the sprayer shown at C, Fig. Ja, placed on the side of 
the vaporizer. A small amount of water with some 
air also enters this vaporizer. 

Fig. 6 represents the Campbell vaporizer in section. 
The fuel oil is fed to the vaporizer by gravitation from 
the fuel tank placed above the engine-cylinder, and 
enters the vaporizer with the incoming air. At the be- 
ginning of the suction stroke the automatic air-inlet 
valve is opened by the partial vacuum in the cylinder, 
and the oil which has entered through the small holes 
at the inlet valve is drawn through the heated vaporizer 
into the cylinder. At the compression stroke the mix- 
ture of the vapor is completed, and being forced into 
the ignition tube is ignited in the ordinary way. The 
ignition tube is heated by heating lamp fed by gravita- 
tion from the oil tank. The same lamp also heats the 



J^l 



TO CYLINDER -*H — «*» 



OIL S'JPPLY 




AM. BANK NOTE CO.! 



Fig. 6. 



(To face />. 12.) 



INTRODUCTORY. 1 3 

vaporizer as well as the tube. The governing is 
effected by allowing the exhaust-valve to remain open 
when the normal speed is exceeded; consequently no 
charge is in that case drawn into the cylinder. 

Sprayers. — The oil-spraying device of an oil engine 
is an important feature. In some engines the fuel is 
sprayed alone into the vaporizer. In others with the 
highest thermal efficiency compressed air is injected 
with the fuel. Various sprayers are shown at Fig. Ja 
and yb. That at A is positively operated and allows 
air and fuel to enter the vaporizer together; those at 
B and C are automatic and only fuel is sprayed. 




The method of vaporizing the oil with the Priest- 
man engine is as follows : 

The oil is stored under pressure in the fuel-tank, 
which pressure is created by the separate air-pump 
actuated from the cam-shaft. The oil is thus forced to 
the sprayer, which device is shown in Fig. 6a, where it 
meets a further supply of air. The mixing of the air 
and oil takes place just as both elements are injected 



14 



OIL ENGINES. 



into the vaporizing chamber, as shown in Fig. 6a. The 
heating of the vaporizer is first accomplished with sep- 
arate lamp ; afterward, when the engine is working, the 
exhaust gases heat the vaporizer by being carried 
around in the outside passage of the vaporizer cham- 








Fig. 7- 

"A"— Air pump connection, "a"— Air passage to spray- 
maker. "0"— Oil tank connection. u o"— Oil passage to 
spraymaker. "B" — Supplementary air valve. 

ber, as shown in Fig. 6a. On the outward or suction 
stroke of the piston the mixture of oil vapor and air 
already formed and heated in the vaporizer is drawn 
into the cylinder through the automatic inlet-valve 
shown on the left of Fig. 6a. The compression stroke 



INTRODUCTORY. 1 5 

then takes place in the ordinary course of the Beau de 
Rochas cycle. 

The governing is effected by means of the pendu- 
lum or centrifugal governor, shown at Fig. 7, control- 
ling the amount of air entering the vaporizer as well 
as reducing the supply of oil simultaneously. Thus, 
the explosive mixture is always composed of the same 
proportions of air and oil, but as the supply of air 
is thus curtailed the compression in the cylinder is also 
necessarily reduced when the engine is working at half 
or light load. The governor thus varies the pressure of 
the explosion, reducing it when necessary, but not 
causing at any time the complete omission of an ex- 
plosion. 

The system of throttling the pressure, somewhat 
similar to a steam engine, produces very steady run- 
ning. 

By this system a thorough vaporization of the oil 
takes place. 

The ignition of the gases is caused by electric spark- 
igniter, the spark being timed by contact-pieces ac- 
tuated from the cam-shaft and horizontal rod actuating 
the exhaust-valve, and is of the " jump-spark" type 
as shown in Fig. 4. 

The oil engines now in use and herein described are 
designed with their valve mechanisms arranged to 
work either on the Beau de Rochas cycle, or on the 
two-cycle system. These two cycles are variously des- 
ignated, the former being generally known as the Otto 
cycle, the four-cycle, and sometimes, but erroneously, 
the two-cycle. Correctly, it should be named the Beau 



i6 



OIL ENGINES. 



de Rochas cycle after its inventor. The other cycle 
is generally known as the " two-cycle," or sometimes 
as the " single cycle," the first designation, however, 
being correct. With those engines working on the 
Beau de Rochas cycle, which includes now many if 
not all the leading and best known types of engine, 




The Beau de Rochas Cycle. 



the cycle of operation of the valves is as follows : 

(a) Drawing in the air and fuel during the first 
outward stroke of the piston at atmospheric pressure. 

(b) Compression of the mixture during the first re- 
turn stroke of the piston. 

(c) Ignition of the charge and expansion in the 
cylinder during second outward stroke of the piston. 

(d) Exhausting, the products of combustion being 
expelled during the second return stroke of the piston. 

These operations are clearly shown in the accom- 
panying illustration, and thus, in this system, the one 
cycle is completed in two revolutions of the crank- 



«=&= 



V^fOei re 



PRE.!>z>vr^E. Oil. Svppuy 






^m- 






w>\Tcn Ovu£i 



Vp\POI% CO~OtM4£1 



W/^TEnll-JLE.-: 



£j(«/=\w^.r a^oai Enci^/c 



QH 



Blowoff n»e Cl.e.*\min g Hoi-e. 



Fig. 7c. 



r\lf\lNLLT 




Fig. 7^ 



0/i. tNLLT 

{To face p. 16.) 



INTRODUCTORY. 



17 



shaft or during four strokes of the piston. The im- 
pulse at the piston is obtained only once during the two 
revolutions. 

The second system, named " two-cycle," is com- 




The Two-Cycle Plan. 



pleted in one revolution, or every two strokes of the 
piston, and is also clearly shown by the accompanying 
illustration. The operation of this type is as follows : 



l8 OIL ENGINES. 

(a) During the first part of the outward stroke of 
the piston — that is, until the piston uncovers the ex- 
haust-port — expansion is taking place. When the ex- 
haust-port is opened the products of combustion are 
expelled ; the piston then moves a little farther forward 
and uncovers the air-inlet port communicating with 
the crank chamber. The air at slight pressure at once 
rushes into the cylinder, assisting the expulsion of the 
burnt gases, and filling the cylinder with air already 
compressed to five or six pounds in the crank chamber ; 
this completes the first stroke of this cycle. 

(b) The next stroke (being the inward stroke of the 
piston) the supply of incoming air and fuel is first 
taken in; then compression of the charge takes place. 
Ignition follows when the piston reaches the back end. 
These two strokes of the piston, or one revolution of 
the crank-shaft, completes this cycle of operation. 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Both Cycles. 

The Beau de Rochas cycle engine, having only one 
impulse during two revolutions, requires the dimen- 
sion of the cylinder to be greater in order to obtain a 
given power than would be required with the two- 
cycle system. Large and heavy fly-wheels must also 
be fitted to the engine in order to maintain an even 
speed of the crank-shaft. On the other hand, this 
cycle has many advantages. The explosion is con- 
trolled more readily. The idle stroke of the inlet air 
cools the cylinder and allows sufficient time to entirely 
expel the products of combustion, and with this sys- 



INTRODUCTORY. 19 

V 
tern no outside air-pump is required, nor is there any 
fear of the compression being irregular by leakage in 
the crank chamber or otherwise. 

With the two-cycle system air must in some way 
be independently compressed. If this is accomplished 
in the crank chamber, then leakage may occur and bad 
combustion follow, with accompanying bad results to 
valves and piston. More cooling water is also needed 
to cool the cylinder, and the proper lubrication of the 
piston may consequently be very difficult to accom- 
plish. With this system steadier running is obtained, 
nor are the heavy fly-wheels required as with the engines 
of the Beau de Rochas cycle. 

Large sized oil engines by all leading makers are 
now made of the four (or Beau de Rochas) cycle. 
Few if any two-cycle oil engines are now on the market 
where over 35 B. H. P. is developed in one cylinder. 
The increased volume of heated gases or vapor in the 
larger diameter cylinder precludes the successful opera- 
tion of the two-cycle type where the explosion occur- 
ring each revolution render the cylinder difficult of 
proper cooling. In such engines where the pressure of 
compression takes place in the crank chamber, difficulty 
is also experienced with the heating of crank and other 
bearings. In the smaller sizes the two-cycle type has 
many advantages — notably greater frequency of im- 
pulse, decreased weight per H. P., elimination of ex- 
haust valves and valve motion. From tables of tests* 
it will be noted the economy of the four-cycle is higher 
than that of the two-cycle type. 

*See pages 249 to 252. 



CHAPTER II. 

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF OIL 
ENGINES. 

The designing of an oil engine is generally a differ- 
ent procedure from that of designing a gas engine. It 
is true, the oil engine is a gas engine in the strict sense 
of the term, but with the gas engine proper, the fuel 
enters its cylinder or mixing chamber in a gaseous state 
ready for mixture with the air. The power which the 
gas engine will develop can more readily be calculated 
when the clearance and pressure of compression before 
the explosion is known than with the oil engine. 

The special apparatus which is the most important 
part of the oil engine is the vaporizer. The different 
types of vaporizers and the various methods of vapor- 
izing the fuel have already been described and ex- 
plained in Chapter I. 

In practically all the oil engines herein described the 
vaporizing apparatus is self-contained in the engine 
and part of it. Before the pressures which will be de- 
veloped in the cylinder can be accurately computed, 
experiments may be necessary to develop the allowable 
maximum pressure of compression which can be used 
to obtain properly timed ignition, complete combustion 
and highest fuel economy. 

These remarks are particularly applicable to the type 
of oil engine having automatic or "hot surface" igni- 
tion. In those engines where the electric ignitor or 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 21 

other mechanically controlled ignitor is used, or in the 
type where the injection of the fuel takes place after 
compression is completed, the exact timing of ignition 
is positively controlled and with the engine in proper 
working order in other respects pre-ignition cannot 
take place which might result with the type having 
automatic or "hot surface" ignition. 

In this chapter it is intended only to describe as 
fully as possible the practical details of the construction 
of the oil engine. For a theoretical discussion of the 
thermodynamics of the internal combustion engine, 
the reader is referred to those works devoted to that 
subject.* 

Briefly referred to, the ideal heat engine converts 
into work the fraction of heat 

r t - r, 

T x ' 
Where 7\ = absolute initial temperature or recep- 
tive temperature. 
T t = absolute final temperature or rejec- 
tive temperature. 
The oil engine, like all other heat engines, converts 
into work that amount of heat being the difference be- 
tween the initial temperature or heat received and the 
final temperature or heat equivalent of exhaust and 
other losses. 
Thus 
Heat evolved = workf + heat and other losses. 

*The Theta Phi Diagram by H. A. Golding ; the Steam En- 
gine by J. H. Cotterill, and Heat Engines by Prof. Ewing. 
tHeat equivalent of work is I. B. T. U. = 778 Foot pounds. 



22 OIL ENGINES. 

In order therefore to obtain the greatest economy, the 
greatest range of temperature must be allowed be- 
tween the initial and final temperatures. For this rea- 
son the progress towards higher economy witnessed in 
recent years in the oil and gas engine has been largely 
if not entirely effected by the use of greater pressures 
of compression before ignition, where the initial tem- 
perature which is a measure of the heat received by the 
engine has been increased, while the final temperature 
has remained with little or no increase, the range be- 
tween being accordingly increased. 

Heat Losses. — In the equation above, the heat or 
other losses may be classified as follows: i. Friction in 
the mechanical movements of the engine itself. 
2. Losses of heat through the cylinder and other water 
jackets. 3. Radiation. 4. Loss through exhaust gases. 
5. Leakage and other losses. 

Internal combustion engines are of substantial 
design in order to withstand the continual shock and 
vibrations incident thereto, and should pre-eminently be 
as accessible as possible in the working parts, which 
may require adjustment from time to time when in ac- 
tual service. The starting gear and other parts to be 
handled by the attendant when starting and running 
should be placed in close proximity to each other. 

Simplicity in construction is, in the writer's opinion, 
the essential feature of an oil engine. Above all other 
prime movers, the oil engine is a machine intended for 
use in any part of the world where its fuel is obtain- 
able, and where, perhaps, no mechanic is available. 



^m 



WATER OUTLET 

^ : i ^ ■ 



/ft" 



— U 



1^ 



-(> 



<> 



~~~ ~~zz 



COOLING WATER 



$ 



<~^_ | ' ..■■■ :--.-J: 



--■■'-■■'■ , ^ f ' y ' i 

I lV/»7£ff INLET 




Fig. 8a. 




Fig. 8. 



(To face p. 22.) 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 23 

Accordingly, all the valves should be arranged so as 
to be easily removed for examination and repairs. The 
spraying and igniting device, as well as the vaporizer, 
should be so designed as to facilitate removal and re- 
pairs. In short, an oil engine, to be successful mechan- 
ically and commercially, should be so constructed that 
it can be successfully worked, cleaned and adjusted by 
entirely unskilled attendants. 

The indicated horse-power (I. H. P.) or total 
power developed by the engine is arrived at by the 
formula 

I.H.P..^M. 

33,000 

Where P = mean effective pressure in lbs. per 
sq. in. 
L = length of stroke in feet. 
A = effective area of piston in sq. in. 
N = number of explosions per minute. 
The Brake or Actual Horse-power (B. H. P.) 
developed by the engine is the I. H. P. less the friction 
in the engine itself and depends upon the amount of 
power absorbed. The mechanical efficiency of the en- 
gine (see page 86) is found by the formula 

Mech.Effi. (E)=^g^. 

In determining the diameter of the cylinder of an 
engine to furnish a required actual or Brake H. P., 
the diameter of the cylinder must allow for the friction 
losses, the mechanical efficiency being usually 80% to 

8 5 %. 



24 OIL ENGINES. 

The mean effective pressure (M. E. P.) may be ar- 
rived at by the following formulae in existing engines : 

tvt rr .• B - H - p - X 39 6 -°o° 

Mean effective pressure = =r — T _ \ T — 

r h x V X N 

E= Mechanical efficiency, usually about 0.80. 
V = Volume piston displacement in cubic inches. 
N ■=■ Number of explosions per minute. 

For multicylinder engines, the M. E. P. can be de- 
termined by considering the B. H. P. for one cylinder 
only. 

The accompanying diagrams, Fig. 8b, are taken from 
different makes of oil engines which have various pres- 
sures of compression. It will be seen that while there 
is a certain comparison between the compression pres- 
sure and the maximum and mean effective of the oil 
engine the rules laid down for the gas engine do not 
altogether apply to the oil engine. 

The formulae given hereafter are those in many in- 
stances used for the designing of gas engines. The 
dimensions of the reciprocating parts are frequently, 
however, increased somewhat for the oil engine, es- 
pecially with the type having hot surface or automatic 
methods of ignition. 

Cylinders. — Cylinders of different types are shown 
at Figs. 8, 8a, and 9. Where the cylinder is made in 
two parts the inner liner is held at the back end only, 
the front joint being made with rubber rings. This 
leaves the inner sleeve free to expand lengthwise and 




Fig. 8b. 



(To face p. 24.) 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 25 

also allows the strain of the explosion to be transmitted 
only through the outer cylinder. Except for the larger- 
sized engines of over 40 H. P., the cylinder made in 
one piece is very satisfactory. The circulating water 
space around the cylinder is made as is shown in 
Figs. 8 and 9, being f" to iV deep, the water inlet 
and outer pipes being so arranged as to allow free and 
efficient circulation of the cooling water around the 
cylinder. By some manufacturers this space for water 
is arranged to cool only that part of the cylinder cover- 
ing the travel of the piston-rings, instead of the whole 
cylinder, as here shown. Other cylinders are cast in 
one piece with the frame or bed-plate having internal 
sleeve. This arrangement has, among other advan- 
tages, that of cheapness, but it has the disadvantage 
that if the cylinder for any reason should require re- 
newing the whole frame must be renewed with it. 

The cylinder cover is made in some engines with the 
valves, air-inlet valve housing or guide inserted into it, 
and with space also in the larger-sized engines ar- 
ranged for cooling water-jacket. Other engines have 
the igniter placed in the cover, while cylinders of the 
type shown in Fig. 8 require no cover, the vaporizer 
flange closing the contracted hole in the end of the 
cylinder. 

Cylinder Clearance. — The percentage of clear- 
ance or clearance volume in the cylinder and combus- 
tion space may be arrived at by the following : 

_ .785 d 2 s 



26 OIL ENGINES. 

Where V c = clearance volume in cubic inches.* 

P c = compression pressure in atmospheres 
_ absolute pressure 
14.7 
d= diameter cylinder in inches. 
s = length of stroke in inches. 

The clearance allowed with the oil engine will de- 
pend upon the type of vaporizer and the method of 
vaporizing adopted, on the timing of the injection of 
fuel, the pressure of compression and the clearance 
may finally have to be modified to procure the best re- 
sults as shown by the indicator card. 

Stroke. — The ratio of length of stroke to diameter 

of cylinder varies with different types of engines. The 

maximum speed of piston allowable is considered 

900 ft. per min. In small high speed engines the 

length of stroke 

—. -. r . — : — = 1. to 1.-5. 

diameter of cylinder 

For medium sized engines this ratio is 1.3 to 1.6, 
while in larger engines the ratio is sometimes as large 
as 1.8 or 2. 

The crank-shaft of an oil engine must be made of 
sufficient strength not only to withstand the sudden 
pressure due to ordinary explosion, but also to with- 
stand the strain consequent upon the greater explosive 
pressure which may possibly be caused by previous 
missed explosions. The crank-shaft is proportioned in 
relation to the area of the cylinder and the maximum 
pressure of explosion and the length of stroke. Oil-en- 
gine crank-shafts are usually made of the ''slab type,'' 
as shown in Fig. 10. It has been said of explosive engines 
that their comparative efficiency may be to an extent 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 



27 



gauged by the strength of the crank-shaft, because 
if the crank-shaft is of too small dimensions, it will 
spring with each explosion, causing the fly-wheels to 
run out of truth and also uneven wear of the bearings. 
Table I. gives a list of dimensions of crank-shafts 
of both oil and gas engines which are made by some 
leading manufacturers, together with the dimensions 
of the cylinder and stroke. 

Different formulae for the dimensions of crank- 



H-. 








1 


TU 


-i 




t 4 


X 


^ — 






HD^ 


«-- E-— D- 




<— G— > 








Fig 


. 10. 





shafts are given by various writers on this subject.* 
The following, for example (which is recommended 
by the writer), is given by Mr. William Xorris. 



D = 



S 



120 



.S = load on piston (area of cylinder in inches X 

maximum pressure of explosion. 
/ = length of stroke in feet. 
D = diameter of crank-shaft in inches. 



*An alternative formu'a is D = 0.137^5 X /• 



28 



OIL ENGINES. 



This formula, however, neglects the bending action 
due to the distance of the centre of crank-pin from the 
centre of the bearings. The diameter should be 
thus slightly increased. Mr. Norris also gives a 
lengthy description, with example, of ascertaining all 
the dimensions of the crank-shaft by means of the 
graphic method. 

Table I. — Sizes op Crank-shafts. 



Cylii 


ider. 


A. 


B. 


C. 


D. 


E. 


F. 


G. 


Diam. 


Stroke. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


ft. in. 


in. 


5 


8 


ii 


ii 


4 


'4 


2 


H 


*4 


si 


9 


»i 


3 


4i 


*4 


2 I" 


H 


34 


7* 


11 


2| 


34 


5* 


»t 


3 


9h 


44 


«i 


15 


3* 


4 


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The balancing of crank-shafts and reciprocating 
parts is another important feature of an oil engine. 
With a single-cylinder explosive engine to perfectly 
accomplish the balancing is impracticable. Most manu- 
facturers, therefore, only balance their engines as far 








I '-4 fT ' II 
^■H ' II 



U 




Fig. ii. 



(To face p. 28.) 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 20, 

as the horizontal movement is concerned. The follow- 
ing formulae is considered correct, and has proved 
satisfactory for the horizontal type of engines : 

(CXR)+G+(SXr) 

w= . 

a 

zv = weight in lbs. of balance weight. 

C = crank-pin and rotating part of connecting-rod 

in lbs. 
R — radius of crank circle in inches. 
G = two-thirds weight of all remaining reciprocat- 
ing parts in lbs. 
6" = weight of crank-arms in lbs. 
r = distance of centre of gravity of crank-arms 

from centre of rotation. 
a = distance of centre of gravity of counterweight 
from centre of rotation. 

Some designers, however, the writer has observed, 
make the crank balance weights as large as space be- 
tween bearings and engine bed will allow — that is, 
when the weights are fastened to the crank-arms, as 
shown in Fig. n, thus overbalancing the crank and 
reciprocating parts. While this would appear bad 
practice, such engines have been known to run without 
the slightest vibration. For the vertical type of engines 
the whole weight of the reciprocating parts, instead of 
two-thirds weight, has been satisfactorily taken. 

Reciprocating parts are sometimes balanced by re- 
cess in fly-wheel rim or metal added to the fly-wheel 
rim or hub. The only correct method of balancing is 
by counterweights. See Fig. n. 



3<D OIL ENGINES. 

Various methods of attaching the counterweights to 
the crank-shaft are shown at Fig. n, from which it 
will be noted that the counterweights are attached by 
studs placed in the cheek of the crank and either pass 
completely through the counterweight or the counter- 
weight is recessed, the nuts of the studs being tightened 
in the recess as shown. Again one bolt only is some- 
times used, the cheek of the crank-shaft then being re- 
cessed, a lip being machined on the counterweight to 
fit the recess in the cheek of the crank-shaft. The 
fourth method of attaching the counterweights is 
shown, in which a bolt is placed at right angles to the 
center line of the countershaft, this bolt passing 
through a hole drilled in the counterweights and cheek 
of the crank-shaft. 

The two last named methods are chiefly used in the 
larger sized engines. The strength of the bolts neces- 
sary to hold the counterweights in place can be found 
by the following formula : 



Where w — weight of one counterweight in lbs. 

r = distance from center line of shaft to 
center of gravity of counterweight in 
inches. 
n = revolutions per minute. 
d= diameter of each bolt in inches. 

The above is for two bolts for each weight. If one bolt 
only is used it must equal in tensile strength the two 
bolts. 





Fig. 12. 



(To face p. 30.) 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 



31 



Connecting-rods are made of various designs in 
cross-section, but that chiefly used is made of soft steel 
and circular, with marine type brasses at crank-pin end 
and similar bearings at the piston or small end. By 
some makers the latter bearing is made with adjust- 
able wedge and screw, the end of the connecting-rod 
then being slotted out, with brass bushes fitted in it. 

Each type of connecting-rod is shown at Fig. 12. 
That illustrated at "A" is a design more suitable for 
the larger size engines, in which space inside the pis- 
ton is available for adjustment of the bolts, as shown. 
The connecting-rod marked "B" is of the rectangular 
type, and is frequently left rough, the ends only being 
machined. 




Fig. 13 



For small engines a good and cheap form of con- 
necting-rod is made of phosphor-bronze metal, as 
shown in Fig 13, from which it will be seen that the 
piston-end bearing is made in one piece with the rod, 
and being slotted is thus made adjustable. The metal 
is left rough other than at the bearings. 

Connecting-rod Bolts. — The connecting-rod bolts 



32 OIL ENGINES. 

should be made of the best wrought iron. The cross- 
section of connecting-rod bolts at bottom of threads 
must be such that on the beginning of the suction 
stroke the stress does not exceed 4,000 to 6,000 lbs. 
per square inch. The total force is made up of the 
inertia force and the suction force and is arrived at as 
follows : 

Let F = total inertia force. 

d= diameter of cylinder in inches. 
W= total weight of piston, piston pin, one- 
half the weight of connecting-rod and 
the weight of any cooling water in the 
piston. 
r — radius of crank in feet. 
/= length of connecting-rod in feet. 

Then F = .00034 W(R. P. M.Wi + j\ 

and the suction force = about 2 lbs. per square inch. 
Therefore the total suction force 
A = 2 x .785^. 
The area of all the connecting-rod bolts at the 

FA- A 

root of the threads should not be less than . 

6,000 

The connecting-rod of a single-acting engine has, 

chiefly, compression stresses to withstand; both the 

outer end bearings have little or no strain on them, 

except that due to momentum of the reciprocating 

parts. The connecting-rod should be from two to 

three strokes in length. In computing its strength, 

the connecting-rod can be taken as a strut loaded 

at either end. The mean diameter when made of mild 




Fig. 14a. 




Fig. 15. 



(To face p. 32.) 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 33 

steel is arrived at by the following formulae, as given 
by authorities on steam-engine design : 



z= o.owVD I Vm. 



x = mean diameter of connecting-rod (half sum of 
diameter of both ends). 

D = diameter of cylinder in inches. 

/ = distance in inches between centre of connecting- 
rod. 

m = maximum explosive pressure in lbs. per square 
inch. 

This formula, however, is excessive for medium 

and slow speed engines, and in such instances the 

writer has used the following formulae with satisfac- 
tory results — namely : 



0.028 Vdiv 



m. 



The piston in single-acting engines is generally of 
the trunk pattern, as shown in Fig. 14, with internal 
gudgeon-pin placed in the centre of the piston, secured 
at either end to the piston by set-screws. The steam- 
engine cross-head and slide-bars are dispensed with, 
the power being transmitted directly from the gudgeon- 
pin of the piston to the crank. 

The piston is made of hard close-grained iron, and 
should not be less than 5-16" in thickness for small 
engines and slightly heavier for the larger sizes. In 



34 OIL ENGINES. 

each case the metal is thicker at the back than at 
the front end. The piston is usually 1.6 diameters in 
length. Three cast-iron piston-rings, as shown in Fig. 
15, are fitted to the smaller engines, four and five rings 
being required to keep the piston tight in the larger 
sizes. A single ring is sometimes added, placed in 
front of the gudgeon-pin, but its use is not recom- 
mended. The pressure on the piston, caused by the 
explosive pressure and due to the angularity of the 
connecting-rod, should not be greater than 25 lbs. per 
square inch of rubbing surface. 

The piston in which separate distance-pieces be- 
tween each ring and having separate plate bolted to 
the back of the piston is shown at Fig. 14a. 

In the larger engines (those having a cylinder 
diameter of more than 24 inches), a water- jacketed 
chamber is made at the back end of the piston which 
is supplied with a continuous flow of cooling water. 
This piston is shown in section at Fig. 15 and Fig. 95. 
The cooling water is conducted to and fro by separate 
pipes attached to the piston, as shown in the illustration 
Fig. 95, and communicate either through stuffing boxes 
or other suitable means to allow proper supply of wa- 
ter to the piston. Water- jacketing of the piston is 
necessary in the larger sizes because of the increased 
volume of burning gases which would become unduly 
heated, allowing increased expansion of the piston and 
rendering it difficult of lubrication. 

Piston Speed. — The revolutions per minute at 
which the engine is designed to run is governed almost 
entirely by the piston speed. High speed engines are 
designed with a comparatively short stroke — slow speed 







^ 



H 



^'-4 




ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 35 

engines having a stroke much longer in comparison 
with the diameter of the cylinder. The maximum al- 
lowable speed of the piston is considered as 900 feet 
per minute. As in four-cycle engines the operation of 
the valves takes place only every other revolution, this 
type of engine is made with a speed frequently as 
high as 350 to 400 R. P. M. 

Inertia force per square inch of piston at end of 
compression stroke must not exceed compression 
pressure, or the explosion will reverse the direction of 
pressures and cause a "knock." 

F 

The inertia force per square inch of piston — 

will be as follows: 

F .00034 IV (R. P. M. 



v(. + ;> 



a a 

a = area of piston in sq. in. 

F 
The value of— must be such as to be less than the 
a 

compression pressure. 

Fly-wheels. — The oil engine is equipped with 
heavier fly-wheels than is necessary with a steam en- 
gine. The weight of the oil engine fly-wheel varies in- 
versely both with the number of impulses given per 
revolution at the crank-pin and the degree of unsteadi- 
ness from the uniform speed of rotation allowed. The 
total revolutions per minute are controlled by the 
governor, but the cyclic variation and the degree of un- 
steadiness from uniform speed of rotation during one 
cycle depend en the fly-wheel. For a given degree of 
unsteadiness of a single cylinder, single acting four- 
cycle engine, the heaviest fly-wheel will be required. 



36 OIL ENGINES. 

Where the number of cylinders is increased, or where 
the number of impulses per minute are increased, the 
weight of the fly-wheel to give the same degree of un- 
steadiness will, of course, be less than with a single 
cylinder engine previously referred to. 

By the degree of unsteadiness is meant the change 
in speed from the uniform speed of rotation through- 
out the cycle. 

Let T — Degree of unsteadiness. 

„, _ K max — V min 

Then T— ^ . 

V ave 

V max = maximum velocity of shaft during cycle. 

V min = minimum velocity of shaft during cycle. 

V ave = average velocity of shaft during cycle. 

The value of T recommended by Giildner* is: 

.05 to .0334 -£q to -3V for pumps and wood 

factories. 

.0285 to .025 ^-g- to ¥ V for factories. 

.025 T V for looms and paper 

mills. 

.020 -gL for grinding mills. 

.0166 to .001. . . .gig- to j^-q for spinning factories. 
. 00067 j^-q for direct-current gen- 
erator. 

.00033 Tiro f° r alternating-current 

generators. 

By cyclic variation is meant the greatest angle that 

the rotating crank-pin varies from the position it would 

occupy were its motion perfectly uniform. Generally 

these two conditions are not related. Consideration of 

*Verbrennungs motoren H. Giildner. Page 345. 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 37 

cyclic variation is usually only necessitated when the 
engine is required to operate alternators in parallel or 
where a similar uniform motion is necessary. 

The diameter of the fly-wheel is governed by the 
peripheral speed which should not exceed 6,000 ft. per 
min. for cast iron. In computing the weight of the 
fly-wheel, it is customary to neglect the weight of the 
hub and arms, and to calculate only on the weight of 
the rim as follows : 

W = weight of rim only in tons (2,000 lbs.). 

D = dia. of the center of gravity of rim in feet. 

N = revolutions per minute. 

P— actual or brake H. P. 

C= constant. 

Then W= Cj^. 

C = for single-acting 4-cycle engine with impulse 
each 720 , 520.000. 
== for engines with impulse each 360 , 250.000. 
= for engines with impulse each 240 , 166.000. 
= for engines with impulse each 180 , 83.000. 

Different types of fly-wheels are shown at Fig. 16. 
The smaller engines for industrial purposes are 
equipped with one and sometimes two fly-wheels made 
in one piece. Larger engines of say 50 H. P. and up- 
wards are usually equipped with one large fly-wheel 
made in two parts as shown at Fig. 16a. The hub split 
with medium sized wheels is considered advantageous, 
as it allows more accurate fitting to the shaft and it be- 
comes easier to keep the wheel running in truth. 

The cams are made of cast iron or steel and are 
usually designed as shown in Fig. 17. Cast iron is ad- 



38 OIL ENGINES. 

vantageously chilled to withstand the wear of the 
rollers. 

The function of a cam is to transfer rotary mo- 
tion of the crank-shaft and cam-shaft to the recip- 
rocating action required for lifting the poppet valves. 
The rapid opening and closing of the valves necessary 
in a four-cycle engine is more easily arrived at with a 
cam motion than otherwise. The valve is closed by a 
spring, the function of opening the valve being per- 
formed by the cam only. Generally valve mechan- 
isms in which cams and poppet valves are used are 
noisy in operation, especially in higher speed engines. 

The rate of opening and closing of the valve can be 
ascertained by plotting a curve corresponding to ordi- 
nates equivalent to the various distances from the face 
of the cam to its centre taken at specified intervals. 
The required width of the face of the cam in contact 
with the rollers is ascertained by computing the work 
to be done due to the pressure in the cylinder at time 
of valve opening, together with the area of the valve. 
Accordingly, where the air valve is operated the cam 
controlling its movement is of less width, seeing that 
only atmospheric pressure obtains when it is operated 
as compared with the exhaust valve cam, which has to 
open that valve against a pressure in some cases as high 
as 40 lbs., necessarily involving considerable work. 

Valves and Valve-Boxes. — The dimensions of the 
air-inlet and exhaust valves are governed by the diam- 
eter of the cylinder and the piston speed. The style 
of the valve-box recommended is that made separate 
and bolted to the cylinder. The valve-box can then 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 39 

be entirely renewed if necessary and at small expense. 
This type of valve-box is shown at Fig. 18, both valves 
being operated from the cam-shaft. The springs re- 
quired to close the valves are shown at Figs. 18 and 19. 
The latter arrangement has the advantage of having 
the springs placed away from the heated valve cham- 
bers. Other designs of valve chambers have the valves 
placed horizontally in the cylinder back-head. A com- 
pact design of valves is shown at Fig. 20, in which the 
exhaust valve is operated only, the air valve being au- 
tomatic. In each case the valves should be brought 
as close as possible to the cylinder walls, the clearance 
space in the ports, etc., being reduced to a minimum. 

With engines of larger size the air and exhaust 
valve box is surrounded by a water jacket, which 
maintains its proper temperature and prevents the seats 
of the valves being distorted by undue expan- 
sion, which might otherwise occur. It will be noted 
in the illustration that the inlet and outlet water con- 
nections to the valve-box are made by separate pipes. 

Where the air-inlet valve is made automatic, it is 
opened by the partial vacuum in the cylinder during 
the suction period, and closed by a delicate spring, as 
shown in Fig. 20. The air and exhaust valves and 
port openings are usually made of such an area that 
the velocity of the air inlet as it enters the cylinder is 
100 feet per second — the velocity of the exhaust gases 
through the exhaust or outlet being about 80 feet per 
second, presuming the exhaust products to be expelled 
at atmospheric pressure. The air-inlet valve, if auto- 
matic, should be so arranged as to allow ingress of air 



40 OIL ENGINES. 

without choking. In calculating the area of valve 
ports or passages, allowance must be made for valve 
guide or other obstruction in the passages. The ve- 
locity of the air is found in the following formulae : 

a 1 
V= velocity of air in ft. per second. 
P= piston speed in ft. per second. 
a = area of piston in inches. 
#!= area of valve opening in inches. 

Main Bearing. — Various designs of bearings are 
shown at Fig. iSa. The ring oiling type of bearing, 
while somewhat more expensive to manufacture than 
the other types shown, is recommended. The maximum 
pressure on the bearing should not exceed 400 lbs. per 
sq. in. of projected area. 

The Crank-pin. — To determine the dimension of 
the crank-pin would properly lead to a lengthy discus- 
sion as to all the strains involved, and the reader for a 
complete discussion on this subject is referred to works 
where space is allowed for such.* 

In different types of engines the dimension of the 
pin varies. A crank-pin short in length and compara- 
tively large in diameter is recommended. The diameter 
of the pin being not less than 1.2 times the diameter 
of the shaft. (See table I.) 

The average pressure on the crank-pin allowable 
should not exceed 500 lbs. per sq. in. of projected area. 

*Unwin Machine Design. 





J- 4 




Fig. i 8(7 



(To face />. 40.) 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 



41 



The exhaust bends close to valve-box should 
when possible be of not less than 5" radius for the 
smaller engines, which dimension should be increased 
for larger-sized engines. 

The valves are made of forged steel, either in one 
piece or with cast-iron valve and wrought-iron or steel 
stem fitted into it, and are shown in Fig. 21. Some 
manufacturers prefer the latter on account of cheap- 
ness, and also because it is claimed the cast-iron valves 
will withstand heat better than the forged valve. 



From Vapor, 




PiSTON-prN. — For small engines, the length of the 
piston-pin is almost invariably one-half the diame- 
ter of the cylinder and the diameter of the pin 0.15 to 
0.25 the diameter of the cylinder. This leads to pres- 
sures of 1,800 to 2,200 lbs. per sq. in. of projected 
area. 



42 



OIL ENGINES. 



Medium power and large engines have piston-pins 
of diameter 

minimum dp — o.2 2^where<^= diameter of cylinder, 
maximum dp = 0.45^. 
mean dp = o.^id. 

Lucke recommends a pin of diameter* 

d P — °-ZS d 
lp = o. 6dp. 



and of length 



WATER COOLED VALVt 




Fig. 21. 
The Engine Frame. — Different designs of engine 
frames are shown in the illustrations of sectional views 



Gas Engine Design by C. E. Lucke, Ph.D. 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 43 

of various engines (see Figs. 76, 98, no). The frame 
should be proportioned not only to prevent vibration 
and to withstand the strains consequent on the impulse 
in the cylinder, but should also be ribbed and of ample 
sectional strength to overcome the vibration known as 
"panting." 

Valve Mechanisms. — With the Beau de Rochas 
or four-cycle engine the valves are only operated dur- 
ing alternate revolutions of the crank-shaft. This 
necessitates an arrangement of some kind of two-to-one 
gear. Worm-gear, as shown in Fig. 22, is considered 




Fig. 22. 

to be well adapted for this work. The power necessary 
to operate the valves is, in this case, transmitted from 
the crank-shaft by the worm or skew gearing through 
the cam-shaft, with separate cams opening the air and 
exhaust valves by the operating levers, as shown in 
Fig. 23. Where spur-gearing (Fig. 23a) is used the 
cam-shaft is mounted in bearings parallel to the crank- 
shaft, the cams then acting on the horizontal rod 
working in compression, which opens the valves. 

Various other arrangements for reducing the motion 
are also used, the work accomplished being in each 



44 



OIL ENGINES. 



case the same as with the worm or spur gear, shaft and 
levers — namely, the opening of the valves during al- 
ternate revolutions of the crank-shaft. 




iw» <s> <2> line val ve box 

Fig. 23. 

In the two-cycle engine this valve or valves are 
operated each revolution of the crank-shaft by eccen- 
tric or cams actuated directly from the crank-shaft. 




Fig. 23a. 



Governing Devices. — The governing devices for 
controlling the speed of oil engines are of two kinds: 
first, that designed to develop centrifugal force, which 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 45 

is balanced either by suitable controlling spring or dead 
weight, as shown in Fig. 24, and, secondly, the inertia 
or pendulum type of governor. 

The accompanying illustrations also show the meth- 
od of by-passing the oil where the air supply 
is constant at all loads. The Rites governor, a very 
simple and efficient device of the fly-wheel type of 
governor, is illustrated and described in Chapter X., 
the method of governing, in which the air supply and 
oil supply is controlled, is shown at Fig. 7, illus- 
trating the Priestman governor. In those engines 
where the regulation is controlled by preventing the 
suction into the cylinder, caused by holding the ex- 
haust valve open, the inertia type of governor is some- 
times used, where the inertia of a weight attached to a 
reciprocating part of the valve motion is arranged, 
having its movement controlled by an adjustable spring. 
When the normal speed is exceeded the inertia of the 
weight overcomes the pressure of the spring and thus 
holds open the exhaust valve till the normal speed is 
regained. 

The governors regulate the speed of the engine by 
the following different methods : 

(a) By acting through suitable levers or other 
mechanism on the valves controlling the fuel supply 
to the cylinder, either by means of a by-pass valve 
placed in the oil-supply pipe to vaporizer, thus allow- 
ing part of the charge of oil to return to the tank in- 
stead of entering the vaporizing chamber or by regu- 
lating the amount of oil as well as the air supply. 

(b) Acting directly on the oil-supply pump, length- 



4 6 



OIL ENGINES. 



ening or shortening the stroke of the pump, as re- 
quired. 

(c) Where the oil vapor rs arranged to be drawn 
into the cylinder with the incoming air the governor 




Fig. 25. 



acts on the exhaust-valve, holding it open during the 
suction stroke, thus preventing the inlet of vapor to 
the cylinder. 

(d) By acting on the vapor inlet-valve, allowing 
this valve to open only when an impulse to the piston is 
required. 

Engines driving dynamos for electric lighting and 
requiring very close regulation are preferably governed 
by the system of throttling or reducing the explosive 
pressures in the cylinder. Thus, when the engine ex- 
ceeds the standard speed for which the governor is set, 
only part of the vapor or oil is allowed to enter the 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 47 

vaporizing chamber or cylinder. The mixture of oil, 




Fig. 26. 

vapor and air is accordingly regulated, and the mean 
effective pressure as required is suitably reduced. 



48 OIL ENGINES. 

The indicator diagram illustrates the variation of 
the M. E. P. in the cylinder, as shown in Fig. 25, each 
expansion line registering a different pressure. No 
explosion is in this case omitted entirely, and conse- 
quently the running of the engine is even and regular. 
A governor acting directly on the oil supply pump is 
shown at Fig. 24a. Another type of governor operat- 
ing on the fuel oil pump directly is shown at Fig. 24ft. 
In this instance the governor is placed within the 
fly-wheel and is also arranged to operate directly on 
the oil pump. It consists of frame F fastened con- 
centrically to inside of flywheel cam ring R, which has 
projection B and cam C projecting and operating each 
revolution (with 2-cycle type) on roller A, causing 
movement of plunger P. W is a wedge on lever L which 
separates R from F. If the speed is increased above 
normal the counterweight H overcomes the tension of 
spring S, moving the wedge outwards, allowing the 
buffer G to move from plunger P ; thus the lift of C 
is reduced and the length of pump stroke reduced. 

The hit-and-miss type of governor is shown in Fig. 
26. This device is made in many different forms, the 
mode of working being similar in them all — namely, 
the inertia of a weight controlled by the spring. When 
the speed of the crank-shaft is increased the weight is 
moved correspondingly quicker ; its inertia is then in- 
creased, and the strength of the spring is overcome 
sufficiently to allow the engaging parts of the valve 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 



49 



motion to be disengaged during one or more revolu- 
tions, and consequently where this device acts on the 
oil-pump the charge of oil is missed, and no explosion 
takes place during the following cycle of operations. 

The oil-supply pump is placed against the oil-tank 
and base of engine or on bracket bolted to cylinder. It 
is usually made of bronze, with steel ball valves. Du- 
plicate suction and discharge valves are advantageous 
in case one valve on either side should leak. Figs. 27 
and 28 represent oil-pumps as used on the Hornsby- 
Akroyd oil engine. 

The fuel oil-tank is placed in or bolted against 




*F 










t¥ff 










■ ii 1 










11 1 










11 ii 








11 ii 




1 




11 H 




j 


§L ^ 




M 




$M'J 










Fig. 29. 



the base of the engine. It is then made of cast iron as 
part of the base of the engine; otherwise the tank is 
made of galvanized iron and separate from the engine 



50 OIL ENGINES. 

base, so that it can be taken out when required for 
cleaning. 

A filter or strainer for cleaning the oil as it passes 
to the oil-pump which can be placed where convenient 
and is separate from the oil tank is shown at Fig. 29. 

Horizontal as Compared with the Vertical 
Type of Oil Engines. 

The accessibility of the piston with the horizontal 
engine is considered a great advantage. The piston 
can always be seen and can be drawn out of the cylin- 
der and cleaned and replaced with ease in this style of 
engine, whereas in a vertical engine it is necessary to 
remove the cylinder cover, and perhaps other parts, to 
gain access to the piston, and also it is necessary to 
have sufficient head room above the top of the cylinder 
for chain-block to lift the piston and connecting-rod. 
The lubrication of the piston is also considered more 
effective in the horizontal than in the vertical type of 
engine. Furthermore, the connecting-rod is more ac- 
cessible for adjustment both at the crank-pin end and 
at the piston end in the horizontal type. This difficulty, 
however, has been overcome by arranging a removable 
plug in the cylinder casing, which when taken out 
allows access for adjustment to the piston end of the 
connecting-rod. European designers seem much in 
favor of the horizontal type of engines, and although 
some leading makers build the vertical type of engines, 
yet the greater number would appear to be made of the 
horizontal type. 




-Efp 




ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 5 1 

Vertical engines for situations in buildings where 
space is restricted and where sufficient head room is 
available have the great advantage of occupying less 
floor space than the horizontal type. The mechanical 
efficiency of a vertical engine is somewhat greater, 
the friction of the piston being less than in the hori- 
zontal type of engine. 

The vertical type for some special purposes can, of 
course, only be used, but for ordinary uses the horizon- 
tal type of engine at present seems to be most in favor, 
one consideration being the difficulty of suitably ar- 
ranging the vaporizing and spraying details in the 
vertical type of engine, which are usually placed 
close to the cylinder, and are, therefore, not so fully 
under the control of the attendant as in the horizontal 
type. 

Multi-cylinder Engines. — For industrial pur- 
poses and situations where simplicity of construction is 
of prime importance and where the engine will have 
little or no skilled attention, the single cylinder hori- 
zontal engine is preferred on account of fewer mov- 
ing parts. Objection is frequently made to a multi- 
cylinder or twin-cylinder engine on this account. The 
multi-cylinder engine, however, has the advantage that 
an impulse is received at the crank-pin with greater fre- 
quency than is the case with the single cylinder en- 
gine. For example, in the single four-cycle engine 
one impulse is received during two revolutions, while 
in the two-cycle single cylinder engine one impulse 
per revolution takes place. With the multi-cylinder 
engine, for instance, three-cylinder type, four-cycle 



52 OIL ENGINES. 

single acting, three impulses are received by the crank- 
pin each two revolutions and with the three-cylinder 
two-cycle type six impulses in two revolutions. The 
multi-cylinder engine, therefore, has an important ad- 
vantage over the single cylinder type for such purposes, 
as electric lighting and especially for operating alter- 
nating generators running in parallel where least pos- 
sible cyclic variation is required. 

Again, the multi-cylinder engine has the adavantage, 
considering that each impulse is more frequent, of not 
requiring the heavy fly-wheel necessary with the single 
cylinder type as explained on page 36. Undoubtedly 
the multi-cylinder type engine requires much more ad- 
justment of bearings than those of the single cylinder 
type. The multi-cylinder type being lighter in weight 
per actual horse-power can be manufactured cheaper 
per horse-power than can the single cylinder type. 

Water Injection. — The injection of a small amount 
of water, water vapor, or steam into the vaporizer or 
cylinder of the oil engine is now the practice of several 
makers. In the sectional view of the latest type of 
Crossley vaporizer, Fig. 3, is shown a water inlet valve 
to the vaporizer whereby a very small amount of water 
is injected into the vaporizer as well as air and fuel. 
The Priestman engine has an arrangement also allow- 
ing a small amount of water to be drawn into the 
combustion chamber when the engine is operating at 
full load. 

The Mietz & Weiss engine is arranged to allow steam 
formed in the water jacket surrounding the cylinder 
to enter the combustion chamber with the fuel. The 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 53 

advantages claimed for the injection of water, etc., 
are first, that the engine works more quietly with it 
than without. The heavy blow of the explosion and 
the metallic knock heard at full load is reduced ; and 
secondly, with the water injection, a somewhat higher 
compression can be used without fear of pre-ignition ; 
and thirdly, the lubrication of the cylinder is assisted 
and the piston is maintained in a cleaner condition. 
The chief disadvantage is found when the supply of 
water is not very carefully regulated. The timing of 
ignition may be retarded or become irregular if too 
much water is admitted. 

Time of Injection of Fuel. — In the descriptive 
matter relative to the Diesel engine, page 216, it is 
pointed out that the injection of the fuel takes place 
after compression of the air in the cylinder is com- 
pleted. This was a feature peculiar to this engine. 
Several other makers are now adopting this feature; 
that is, increasing the compression and injecting the 
fuel as (or a few degrees before) the piston reaches 
the inner dead centre. The increased compression re- 
sults in increased economy and more complete com- 
bustion of the fuel. In the latest type Hornsby oil 
engines, in the De la Vergne F. H. type, and in the 
smaller 2-cycle type described in Chapters X. and XII. 
this feature is referred to. 

Erecting and Assembling of Oil Engines. — 
The following remarks relating to the erection of oil 
engines contain a few hints on important points of 
this work, the information being intended for those 



54 



OIL ENGINES. 



readers not sufficiently familiar with the assembling of 
explosive engines to be cognizant of the parts requiring 
careful handling and accurate workmanship. 

Bearings. — In scraping in the crank-shaft bearings 
of horizontal engines the shaft must bear perfectly on 
that part of the bearings as shown in Fig. 30, marked 




Fig. 30. 



A, the greater pressure being on the part of the 
bearing which is between the centre line of engine 
drawn through the cylinder and the part through 
which the vertical centre line of fly-wheel is drawn. 
A slight play of about 1-64" can be given to the crank- 
shaft sideways in the bearings in smaller-sized engines, 
and 1-32 of an inch in the larger sizes is recommended. 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 55 

In vertical engines the bearings receive both the 
pressure of explosion and the pressure due to the 
weight of the fly-wheels in the same part, and these 
bearings require the same care at those points in the 
lower half of the bearing — namely, about 45 ° each side 
of the centre line drawn vertically through the cylinder 
and crank-shaft. The bearing surfaces of the caps and 
of that part where the pressure is not so great do not 
require such careful scraping as those parts where the 
pressure is greater. 

Piston and Piston-Rings. — The fitting of piston 
and piston-rings is very important and requires accu- 
rate workmanship. The cylinder and piston are 
machined to standard ring and gauge, one-thousandth 
per inch diameter of cylinder play being allowed. The 
metal of the piston' not being of uniform thickness 
after machining may slightly lose its shape, and some- 
times requires slight hand-filing when being fitted to 
the cylinder. The piston without rings can be moved 
easily up and down inside the cylinder. If necessary 
the piston should be eased slightly by hand on the 
sides, being left a good and close fit at the top and 
bottom bearing in horizontal engines. The sides 
should not rub hard in any part. The piston, if the 
rings are in place, can be fitted to the cylinder from 
the back end of the cylinder, and can be moved around 
the front end, being inserted into cylinder as far as 
the rings. 

The distance-pieces or junk-rings should not touch 
the sides of the cylinder, the bearing of the piston be- 
ing only on the trunk of the piston itself. The front 



56 



OIL ENGINES. 



part of the piston can also be bevelled for f " in length, 
1-32" in diameter, as shown in Fig. 14. 

The piston-rings, if made as in Fig. 15, should 
have in the smaller sizes 1-32" play, in the larger sizes 
1- 16", as shown at A in Fig. 31. This space allows 
for expansion when the ring becomes heated in work- 
ing. It is advantageous to insert dowel-pins in the 
piston grooves to maintain the rings in the same posi- 
tion, so that the space in each ring is out of line with 
that in the following ring, as also shown in Fig. 31. 



A^ 



\ 



\ 



I 




Fig. 31. 



The piston is made in one piece, the rings being 
sprung on over the junk-rings. It should be remem- 
bered that with oil engines greater heat is evolved in 
the cylinder than in steam engines. Consequently the 
slightest play is allowed to the piston-rings at the sides, 
and are, therefore, not made so tight a fit as in steam- 
engine practice. 

The connecting-rod bearings at piston end are 



ON DESIGNING OIL ENGINES. 57 

scraped in the ordinary way, and should be allowed 
slight play sideways on the gudgeon-pin. In smaller- 
sized engines 1-64" can be allowed, this amount being 
slightly increased in the larger-sized engines. The 
crank-pin bearing of the connecting-rod is usually 
allowed a very slight play sideways also. 

The air and exhaust valves should not be a 
very close fit in their guides. If the fit in these guides 
is made too close when the valve-box becomes heated 
the consequent expansion may cause the valve-stem to 
stick in the guides, and leakage of the valve will result. 

The valve-seats are by some considered best left 
sharp, being not more than 1-32" wide before grinding. 

The water-jackets of cylinder or valve-boxes 
should be all tested by hydraulic pressure to at least 
120 lbs. pressure per square inch before the piston is 
put into the cylinder. 

The fly-wheels require careful keying onto crank- 
shaft. If the keys are not a good fit and not driven 
home tight the engine may knock when running. Two 
keys in larger-sized engines are usually supplied, one 
being a sunk key, which is fitted to keyway in recessed 
shaft as well as to the keyway cut in the fly-wheel hub, 
the second key being only recessed in the fly-wheel 
and being concave on the lower side to fit the shaft. 

Oil-supply pipes which have to withstand pres- 
sure should have the fittings " sweated" on, the unions 
being screwed into place on the brass or copper pipe 
while the solder is still in a liquid state. 

Cylinders made of two or more parts require the 
joints of internal sleeve to be made with great care. 



58 



OIL ENGINES. 



Asbestos or a copper ring is used to make this joint; 
sometimes wire gauze with asbestos is used, which has 
been found to give very good results. 

Cylinder Lubricators. — The lubrication of the pis- 
ton in explosive engines is of great importance. On 
those engines where it is convenient to use it, a 
mechanical type of lubricator is added. This device 
consists of an oil reservoir into which a wire attached 
to a revolving spindle is periodically dipped, the wire 
being also arranged to wipe over a projection which 
conducts the oil to a receptacle placed above the reser- 
voir and connected to the top of the cylinder. 




Fig. 31a. 

The most efficient and economical lubricator for the 
piston is the force feed system shown in Fig. 31a, 
where the lubricant is forced by pump and reaches the 
piston at the proper time and position for best results 
in lubrication. 

[Tables giving the Calorific Values of Oils, etc., will be 
found at end of Book.] 



CHAPTER III. 

TESTING ENGINES. 

The chief object in testing explosive engines at the 
factory is to ascertain that, in actual working at dif- 
ferent loads, the several adjustments are correct. In 
the steam engine a physical process is completed, re- 
quiring only the inlet, expansion, and the outlet of the 
steam to and from the cylinder, whereas in the oil 
engine a chemical process is gone through consisting 
of the introduction of the proper mixture of vaporized 
oil and air into the cylinder,. the ignition of this ex- 
plosive mixture and the consequent combustion. All 
this must be accomplished before the piston receives an 
impulse. In order, therefore, that the best results 
be obtained, the different mechanisms controlling these 
processes are each set, and record of their performance 
during the test is taken with the indicator, which results 
are again verified by some form of brake attached to 
the fly-wheels or pulley of the engine, and are further 
checked in an oil engine by the record of the amount 
of oil which is consumed for the power developed. 
Where more detailed tests are required, the tempera- 
ture of the exhaust gases, the amount of air consumed 
in the cylinder, its temperature and barometrical pres- 



6o 



OIL ENGINES. 



sure, together with the amount of cooling water neces- 
sary to keep the cylinder to the required temperature, 
are each noted and recorded. When the test is made 
with a new engine, it should be first started up and run 
without anv load for a short time. The cams are set as 




Fig. 32. 



shown in diagram, Fig. 32, for engines having both aii 
and exhaust valves actuated from the crank-shaft. 
The air- valve closes, as shown, just after the crank-pin 
has passed the out centre, the exhaust-valve opening at 
about 85 per cent, of the full stroke and closing just 



TESTING ENGINES. 6l 

after the air-valve has opened. Where the air-inlet 
valve is automatic the exhaust-cam only is set, as 
shown in the diagram, and the air-valve spring should 
be adjusted so that the incoming air is not choked in 
passing the valve during the suction stroke. 

The oil-pipes leading to the vaporizer or sprayer 
should be well washed before starting the engine, as 
with a new engine grit and filings may get into the 
pipes, and when the engine is started the oil-valves and 
valve-seats may be damaged. The oil-filter also must 
be in proper shape and clean, so that the oil can flow 
freely to the oil-pipe. 

After the vaporizer and igniter has been well 
heated a little oil should be allowed to enter the vapor- 
izer or combustion chamber; then the fly-wheels can 
be turned forward a few times, after which the engine 
should start freely. The method of starting the differ- 
ent types of engines is explained in detail in Chap- 
ter VII. An engine is sometimes found difficult to 
start the first time owing to some defect in the castings 
or workmanship, and if it fails to start, the engine 
should be examined in detail to ascertain the cause. 

First test the oil-inlet or spraying device by hand; 
then test the pressure of compression in the cylinder 
by turning the fly-wheels backward. The relief-cam 
being out of action, it should not be possible with full 
compression to turn the fly-wheel past the back centre. 
If the compression is so slight that the pressure in the 
cylinder can be overcome and the fly-wheel turned 
during the compression period by hand, then either 
the piston-rings are leaking or there is leakage past 



TESTING ENGINES. 63 

the air and exhaust valves or through some of the 
joints or gaskets. Air and exhaust valves and piston- 
rings should be examined, and any appearance of leak- 
age remedied by refitting the piston-rings, as already 
explained in Chapter II., and the valves, if necessary, 
should be reground in. New engines also fail to start 
at times by reason of the leakage of water from the 
cooling jacket into the cylinder owing to faulty gas- 
kets or flaws in the castings. This leakage of water 
may sometimes be ascertained by failure to obtain an 
explosion in the combustion chamber when all condi- 
tions in the cylinder and vaporizer are apparently in 
good order for the engine to start properly. If leakage 
of water is suspected but cannot be detected in this 
way, the water-pressure pump should be attached and 
the water-jackets tested to a pressure of 120 lbs. The 
crank-shaft and other bearings require careful oiling 
at first, and full lubrication should be given to the 
piston ; otherwise it may, perhaps, work dry and cut 
the cylinder. 

After working a few hours, the piston should be 
withdrawn and examined ; any hard places on the sides 
should be eased either by careful hand filing or other- 
wise. The junk-rings (or distance-pieces between the 
rings) should be eased if necessary, so that they do not 
work hard on the cylinder. The full bearing of the 
piston should be from about V' from rings forward to 
within j" of the front end, as already explained in 
Chapter II. 

The terms " brake," or " developed," or " actual" 
or " effective" H. P., are synonymous, and are used 



64 OIL ENGINES. 

to signify the power which an engine is capable of 
delivering at the fly-wheel or belt-pulley. This power 
is variously designated, and here we shall use the ab- 
breviation B. H. P. to express it. The indicated H. P. 
represents the whole power developed by combustion 
in the cylinder, but it is not considered such a reliable 
method of measuring the power of explosive engines 
as that of the dynamometer or brake, because the in- 
dicator-card only gives the power developed by one or 
more explosions, whereas the brake can be applied for 
any length of time and shows the average performance 
of the engine for a longer period of time. 

Fig. 33 illustrates the engine as arranged for testing 
in the factory. The fuel tank shown at the left hand is 
placed there for the purpose of running the oil-con- 
sumption test. The fuel pump is connected tempo- 
rarily to this tank instead of taking its supply of oil 
from the tank in the base of the engine. The indicator 
is also shown in place on the top of the cylinder. The 
device for reducing the stroke of the crank to suitable 
dimensions for the indicator is also shown in place 
bolted to the bed-plate of the engine. The brake con- 
sists of rope \" thick, with wooden guides with bal- 
ances at each extremity. The upper balance is sus- 
pended by adjustable hook suitably arranged for alter- 
ing the load on the brake. 

Various kinds of dynamometer brakes are used for 
testing; that shown in Fig. 33 is considered by the 
writer as being satisfactory. The brake should be 
attached as shown in the illustration, the load being 
taken as the number of pounds shown on the upper 




A3 n rid n 38 



&A 




Fig. 33b. 




(To face page 65.) 



Fig. 34. 



TESTING ENGINES. 65 

scale less those shown on the lower scale. Brake or 
actual H. P. is calculated thus : 

b.h.v= WxCxN - 

33,000 

J¥= net load in pounds. 

C = circumference of wheel. 

N = number of revolutions per minute. 

The circumference of the wheel should be measured 
at the centre of the rope, thus allowing for half the 
rope thickness. 

The Prony brake being water cooled is recommended 
for larger engines. 

The power developed with this brake as shown in 
Fig. 33& is ascertained as follows : 

B R p = 2RxttXIx Qxn. 
33.000 
When R = radius of wheel in feet. 

Q = weight in pounds on scale -f weight of 

brake apparatus. 
/ = distance in feet from center of shaft to 
point of contact of lever with scale. 

7T= 3.1416. 

n = R. P. M. 

The Alden dynamometer or absorption brake shown 
at Fig. 33a is advantageously used for measuring the 
horse-power when the prony brake or rope brake can- 
not be used. The power developed is calculated in the 
same way as with the prony brake, Fig. 336. The dy- 
namometer can be operated by belt or direct connected 
to the shaft of the engine. 



66 



OIL ENGINES. 



The indicator is attached to the cylinder by first 
screwing into the cylinder the indicator cock, as shown 
at Fig. 34<x, to which the indicator is applied in the 
ordinary way. 

The length of the stroke of the engine must be re- 
duced to suit the dimensions of the diagram, which is 




Fig. 34a. 

usually about 3" long. This is accomplished by the 
use of a device, as shown in Fig, 35 or 35b. 
Indicated H. P. is calculated thus : 



I. H. P. =- 



PLAE 



33,000 



P = mean effective pressure in lbs. 

L = length of stroke in feet. 

A = area in inches of piston. 

E = number of explosions per minute. 



TESTING ENGINES. 



67 



The M. E. P. of indicator-card is obtained by the 
use of the planimeter, as shown in Fig. 37, or by meas- 
uring the card by scale and taking the average pres- 
sure. 

The illustration (Fig. 36) shows the design and 




Fig. 35- 



arrangement of the parts of the Crosby gas-engine in- 
dicator. The cylinder proper is that in which the 
movement of the piston takes place. The piston is 
formed from a solid piece of tool steel, and is hardened 
to prevent any reduction of its area by wearing. Shal- 



68 



OIL ENGINES. 



low channels in its outer surface provide an air pack- 
ing, and the moisture and oil which they retain act as 
lubricants, and prevent undue leakage by the piston. 




The piston is threaded inside to receive the low T er 
end of the piston-rod and has a longitudinal slot 
which permits the bottom part of the spring with 



TESTING ENGINES. 69 

its bead to drop on to a concave bearing in the upper 
end of the piston-screw, which is closely threaded 
into the lower part of the socket; the head of this 
screw is hexagonal, and may be turned with a hollow 
wrench. 

The swivel-head is threaded on its lower half to 
screw into the piston-rod more or less according to the 
required height of the atmospheric line on the diagram. 
Its head is pivoted to the piston-rod link of the pencil 
mechanism. The pencil mechanism is designed to 
eliminate as far as possible the effect of momentum, 
which is especially troublesome in high-speed work. 
The movement of the spring throughout its range bears 
a constant ratio to the force applied, and the amount of 
this movement is multiplied six times at the pencil 
point. 

Springs. — In order to obtain a correct diagram, the 
height of the pencil of the indicator must exactly 
represent in pounds per square inch the pressure on 
the piston of the oil engine at every point of the stroke ; 
and the velocity of the surface of the drum must bear 
at every instant a constant ratio to the velocity of the 
engine piston. 

The piston spring is made of a single piece of 
spring steel wire, wound from the middle into a double 
coil, the spiral ends of which are screwed into a brass 
head having four radial wings to hold them securely 
in place ; 80 to 200 lb. spring is a suitable pressure 
for this work. 

This type of indicator is ordinarily made with a 
drum one and one half inches in diameter, this being 



"JO OIL ENGINES. 

the correct size for high-speed work, and answering 
equally well for low speeds. 

To remove the piston and spring, unscrew the cap; 
then take hold of the sleeve and lift all the connected 
parts free from the cylinder. This gives access to all 
the parts to clean and oil them. 

To change the location of the atmospheric line of 
the diagram. — First, unscrew the cap and lift the 
sleeve, with its connections, from the cylinder; then 
turn the piston and connected parts toward the left, 
and the pencil point will be raised, or to the right and 
it will be lowered. One complete revolution of the 
piston will raise or lower the pencil point \" , and this 
should be the guide for whatever amount of elevation 
or depression of the atmospheric line is needed. 

To change to a left-hand instrument. — If it is desired 
to make this change : First, remove the drum, and then 
with the hollow wrench remove the hexagonal stop 
screw in the drum base, and screw it into the vacant 
hole marked L ; next, reverse the position of the adjust- 
ing handle in the arm ; also, the position of the metallic 
point in the pencil lever ; .then replace the drum, and 
the change from right to left will be completed. 

The tension on the drum spring may be increased or 
diminished according to the speed of the engine on 
which the instrument is to be used, as follows : Re- 
move the drum by a straight upward pull; then raise 
the head of the spring above the square part of the 
spindle, and turn it to the right for more or to the left 
for less tension, as required ; then replace the head on 
the spindle. 



TESTING ENGINES. Jl 

Before attaching the indicator to an engine, allow air 
to blow freely through pipes and cock to remove any 
particles of dust or grit that may have lodged in them. 

The indicator should be attached close to the cylin- 
der whenever practicable, especially on high-speed en- 
gines. If pipes must be used they should not be smaller 
than half an inch in diameter, and as short and direct 
as possible. 

The indicator can be used in a horizontal position, 
but it is more convenient to take diagrams when it is 
in a vertical position, and this can generally be ob- 
tained, when attaching to a vertical engine, by using a 
short pipe with a quarter upward bend. 

The motion of the paper drum may be derived from 
any part of the engine, which has a movement coinci- 
dent with that of the piston. In general practice and 
in a large majority of cases the piston itself is chosen 
as being the most reliable and convenient. 

When the indicator is in position and the cord-drum 
or other reducing motion is correctly placed, it is next 
necessary to adjust the length of the cord, so that the 
drum will clear the stops at each extreme of its rota- 
tion. The engine should be allowed to run for a few 
minutes to heat up before taking a diagram. The at- 
mospheric line should be drawn by hand, preferably 
after the diagram has been taken and when the instru- 
ment is heated up; the card is then taken with full- 
rated load on the brake. It is well to allow the pencil 
to go several times over the paper so as to procure 
a card showing several explosions, and thus the aver- 
age pressure can be taken. 



72 



OIL ENGINES. 



The pressure of the pencil on the paper can be ad- 
justed by screwing the handle in or out, so that when it 
strikes the stop there will be just enough pressure on 
the pencil to give a distinct fine line. The line should 




Fig. 37- 



not be heavy, as the friction necessary to draw such a 
line is sufficient to cause errors in the diagram. 

The planimeter or averaging instrument is shown 
at Fig. 37. No. 1 planimeter is the simplest form of the 
instrument, having but one wheel, and is designed to 
measure areas in square inches and decimals of a 



TESTING ENGINES. 73 

square inch. The figures on the roller wheei D repre- 
sent units, the graduations tenths, and the vernier E 
gives the hundredths. F is the tracer and P is the 
pivot. 

Fig. 37 represents the No. 2 planimeter, which is 
the same as the No. 1, with the addition of a counting 
disc G, the figures on which represent tens and mark 
complete revolutions of the roller-wheel. By this 
means areas greater than ten square inches can be 
measured with facility. The result is given in square 
inches and decimals, and the reading from the roller 
wheel and vernier is the same as with No. 1. 

Fig. 37 represents the No. 3 planimeter, which dif- 
fers somewhat in design from the two previously de- 
scribed. It is capable of measuring larger areas, and 
by means of the adjustable arm A giving the results in- 
various denominations of value, such as square deci- 
meters, square feet and square inches ; also of giving 
the average height of an indicator diagram in fortieths 
of an inch, which makes it a very useful instrument in 
connection with indicator work. 



Directions for Measuring an Indicator Diagram 
with a No. 1 or No. 2 Planimeter. 

Care should be taken to have a flat, even, unglazed 
surface for the roller wheel to travel upon. A sheet of 
dull-finished cardboard serves the purpose very well. 
Set the weight in position on the pivot end of the bar 
P, and after placing the instrument and the diagram 



74 



OIL ENGINES. 



in about the position shown in Fig. 37a, press down the 
needle point so that it will hold its place, set the tracer ; 
then at any given point in the outline of the diagram, 
as at F, adjust the roller wheel to zero. Now fol- 
low the outline of the diagram carefully with the tracer 




Fig. 37a. 



point, moving it in the direction indicated by the arrow, 
or that of the hands of a watch, until it returns to the 
point of beginning. The result may then be read as 
follows : Suppose we find that the largest figure on 
the roller wheel D that has passed by zero on the ver- 
nier £ to be 2 (units) and the number of graduations 
that have also passed zero on the vernier to be 4 



TESTING ENGINES. 75 

(tenths), and the number of graduation on the vernier 
which exactly coincides with the graduation on the 
wheel to be 8 (hundredths), then we have 2.48 square 
inches as the area of the diagram. Divide this by the 
length of the diagram, which we will call 3 inches, and 
we have .8266 inch as the average height of the dia- 
gram. Multiply this by the scale of the spring used in 
taking the diagram, which in this case is 40, and we 
have 33.06 pounds as the mean effective pressure per 
square inch on the piston of the engine. 

Directions for Using the No. 3 Planimeter. 

No. 3 planimeter is somewhat differently manipu- 
lated, although the same general principle obtains. 
The figures on the wheels may represent different 
quantities and values, according to the particular ad- 
justment of the sliding arm A. If it is desired merely 
to find the area in square inches of an indicator dia- 
gram, set the sliding arm so that the 10-square-inch 
mark will exactly coincide with the vertical mark on 
the inner end of the sleeve H at K. The sliding arm is 
released or made fast by means of the set-screw S. 

With the wheels at zero and the planimeter and dia- 
gram in the proper position, trace the outline carefully 
and read the result from the roller wheel and vernier, 
the same as directed for the No. 1 and No. 2 instru- 
ments. 

The indicator-card shows what is occurring inside 
the cylinder and combustion chamber during the differ- 
ent periods of the revolution. It gives a record of the 



7 6 



OIL ENGINES. 



variations in pressure, and also the exact points of the 
opening and closing of the valves. With the Otto or 
Beau de Rochas cycle the four strokes are as follows : 
Suction (A), compression (B), expansion (C), ex- 
haust (D). The lines in the diagram are correspond- 
ingly lettered (see Fig. 38), and they represent each of 
these processes. 




SUCTION A. 

Fig. 38. 

Fig. 39 shows a good working diagram, in which 
the mixture of air and hydrocarbon gas is correct and 
where combustion is practically complete. The igni- 
tion line in this diagram is nearly perpendicular to the 
atmospheric line, but inclines slightly toward the 
right hand at top. The diagram also shows the open- 
ing of the exhaust-valve at the proper time — namely, 
at 85 per cent, of the stroke. The compression line 
represents the proper pressure, and the air-inlet and 
exhaust lines indicate correct proportioned valves and 
inlet and outlet passages. 



TESTING ENGINES. 



77 



In considering and analyzing diagrams the follow- 
ing hints will perhaps be of service. If the suction 
line of the diagram is shown below the atmospheric 




Fig. 40. 



line, as in Fig. 40, then the air-inlet to the cylinder is 
known to be in some way choked. Where the air-valve 
is automatic this defect may be caused by the valve- 



78 OIL ENGINES. 

spring being too strong and it accordingly requires 
weakening ; or the area of the air suction-pipe, if this is 
used, may be too small or this connection may have too 
many elbows or bends in it, and should be either of in- 
creased diameter or the bends should be eliminated. 
Again, the valve itself may have too small an area, or 
if actuated have insufficient lift (the proper lift of a 
valve is | of its diameter), or the period of opening 
of the valve may not be correct, and the setting of the 
cams should be carefully examined, and, if necessary, 
altered in accordance with the diagram of valve open- 
ing, as shown at Fig. 32. 

If the compression line B shows insufficient pres- 
sure of compression, this indicates leakage, which is 
probably due either to leaky piston or valves. If this 
leakage is past the piston-rings, the escaping air may 
be heard and the lubricating oil will be seen at each ex- 
plosion period to be splashing and blown past the rings 
of the piston. If no signs of piston leakage are noticed, 
then examine oil-inlet air and exhaust valves and valve- 
seats very carefully ; also note the various joints in the 
valve-box and otherwise where leakage might possibly 
occur. In engines without water-jackets around the 
valve-box the heat of the exhaust gases continually 
passing through the valve-chamber may sometimes 
cause the valve-seats to expand unequally when heated, 
and consequent leakage will occur when working. 

If leakage is detected at the valves they must be re- 
ground, and also any hard places on the valve-stems 
or guides where they become heated should be eased so 
that the valves will work easily and efficiently when the 



TESTING ENGINES. 79 

seats and guides are expanded, and, perhaps, slightly 
distorted, by the heat of working. (It is understood 
that these remarks refer to new engines solely.) With 
some engines means of increasing the compression by 
movable plates on the connecting-rod crank-pin end 
or other somewhat similar means are provided which 
can be changed, if necessary, thus decreasing the 




Fig. 41. 

amount of clearance in the cylinder. If the piston- 
rings are without leakage and they have worked into 
their proper bearings in the cylinder, and if all the 
valves are in perfect order and without leakage, and 
still the compression pressure, as shown on the diagram 
and as already explained, requires increasing, then the 
clearance in the cylinder can be slightly decreased 
where it is possible to do so. The vertical ignition line 
shows the timing of the ignition, and also the initial 
pressure of explosion. If this line is as represented, in 
Fig. 41 the ignition is known to be too early, and 
should be arranged to occur somewhat later. The 



8o 



OIL ENGINES. 



diagrams as shown in Fig. 42 has the ignition line too 

late. 

The timing of the ignition is regulated as follows : 
With electric ignition by altering the period of 




Fig. 42. 



sparking. Thus, if later ignition is required the ignit- 
ing device must not be allowed to spark till the crank- 
pin has travelled nearer to the dead centre. With the 
hot-tube ignition and no timing valve, the length of the 



TESTING ENGINES. 8l 

tube can be changed. For example, to retard the 
ignition the tube should be lengthened slightly and its 
temperature somewhat decreased. In engines where 
neither of these means of ignition is used, but where 
the ignition is caused by the heat of the vaporizer- 
chamber or somewhat similar device, the timing of the 
ignition is controlled by the heat of the vaporizer- 
chamber and also by the heat generated by the process 
of compression. Where the ignition in this case is to 
be retarded, the compression should be reduced slightly 
and the vaporizer or other igniting device maintained 
at a less heat. The ignition, however actually caused, 
is always influenced by the heat of the cylinder walls 
and the temperature of the incoming air, which corre- 
spondingly increases or decreases the heat caused by 
the compression before explosion takes place. The 
ignition is usually adjusted when testing engines with 
the cooling water issuing from the cylinder water- 
jackets at a temperature of no° to 130 Fahr. 

The expansion line is marked C, as shown in Fig. 38. 
This line indicates the initial pressure of combustion, 
and it also shows the developed pressure decreasing as 
the volume of the cylinder becomes greater with the 
piston moving forward. The effective pressure devel- 
oped is measured from this line to the compression 
line, and varies according to the richness of the ex- 
plosive mixture. When the engine is in actual use 
the governor controls this pressure automatically. 

The mean effective pressure is greater in some types 
of engines than it is in others, and varies, as stated in 
Chapter II., from 40 to 75 lbs. The amount of the 



82 OIL ENGINES. 

pressure in the cylinder is dependent upon the method 
of vaporization, upon the proper mixture of the gas 




Fig. 43- 

and air before explosion, and also upon the pressure 
of the compression. As in gas engines, the tendency in 
oil-engine practice is toward higher compression to 



TESTING ENGINES. 83 

increase their efficiency. Where the mean effective 
pressure is low the relative power of the engine will, 
of course, also be reduced. The greatest mean effective 
pressure should be attained when the oil is thoroughly 
vaporized, is properly mixed with the air and when 
the compression is as high as practicable without pre- 
ignition taking place. 

Should the exhaust lines D appear as in Fig. 43, then 
it is- understood that the discharge of the exhaust gases 
is in some way choked ; this may be caused by the ex- 
haust-valve itself being too small, or to the periods of 
the opening of the valve being incorrect. (See dia- 
gram, Fig. 32.) Again, this defect may be caused by 
too many sharp bends, too small diameter exhaust- 
pipe, or possibly too long an exhaust-pipe. Theoreti- 
cally no back pressure should be allowed during the 
exhaust period, but usually in practice a slight pres- 
sure of about one pound is recorded. 

Each pound per square inch of back pressure shown 
by the exhaust line shows a back pressure in the cylin- 
der, which is negative work to be overcome by the 
piston, and represents a slight loss of power by the 
engine. 

Care must be taken that the indicator is in proper 
condition, without any play in the pencil arm, and that 
the piston is free and well lubricated. Lost motion in 
the indicator may show peculiarities in the diagram 
which to an inexperienced manipulator may be the 
cause of trouble. 

Tachometers (Fig. 44). — These instruments have 
been designed for the purpose of ascertaining at a 



8 4 



OIL ENGINES. 



glance the number of revolutions made in a given time 
by rotating shafts. Their construction is based on 
centrifugal power, and they consist of a case inside of 
which are mounted a pendulum ring, in connection 
with a fixed shaft, a sliding rod and an indicating 




Fig. 44. 

movement. The apparatus is very sensitive, and will 
indicate the slightest deviation in speed. 

Portable Tachometer (Fig. 44a). — This instru- 
ment is similar in construction to the tachometer for 
permanent attachment. By applying it by hand to the 
centre of rotating shafts, it will instantly and correctly 
indicate the number of revolutions of the shaft per 
minute. 

Fig. 44b illustrates a new form of speed counter, the 



TESTING ENGINES. 



85 



invention of Mr. A. J. Hill, of Detroit, Mich., which, 
besides counting, also registers the number of revolu- 




Fig. 44a. 



tions of the shaft. This is accomplished by simply 
punching a continuous slip of paper, as shown in 




44b. 

Fig. 44c. The watch mechanism in the device also 
periodically records a detent in the paper slip, thus 



44c 



marking the periods of time while the shaft actuates 
the mechanism of the device, causing a detent for each 



86 OIL ENGINES. 

revolution. The writer has not yet had an opportunity 
of testing this interesting and useful invention. 

When the full brake H. P. is obtained, which should 
be developed for at least a period of one hour con- 
tinuously, the consumption fuel test is made. 

The mechanical efficiency of oil engines, as 

shown by records of various tests, should be from 80 

per cent, to 88 per cent., although the efficiency is 

much less than this when the engine has been working 

only a short time and before the crank-shaft and other 

bearings and piston are worn in. To ascertain the 

mechanical efficiency of an engine, first calculate the 

I. H. P., as already described ; then figure the B. H. P., 

as already shown. Then: 

B. H. P. 

Mechanical efficiency = 

T. H. P. 

For instance : If the B. H. P. of an engine = 10 and 
the I. H. P. = 12.5, 

10 

Mechanical efficiency = 

12.5 
= 80 per cent. 

Thermal Efficiency. — The ratio of the heat util- 
ized by the engine, as shown by the power (B. H. P.) 
developed, as compared with the total heat contained 
in the fuel absorbed by the engine, is known as the 
thermal efficiency. This can be obtained by the follow- 
ing formula: 

42.63 X 60 

cxx 



TESTING ENGINES. 87 

C = consumption of fuel in pounds per B. H. P. per 

hour. 
X = calorific value of the fuel per pound in heat 

units. 

The thermal efficiency of different makes of oil en- 
gines varies. In the older type of engines a thermal 
efficiency of 15 per cent, was the maximum, as shown 
by the following disposition of heat by Mr. Dugeld 
Clerk, applicable to older engines. In the modern en- 
gines (see test, page 248) a thermal efficiency equiva- 
lent to approximately 28 per cent, has been obtained. 

Heat shown on diagrams per I. H. P. . 15.3 per cent. 

Heat rejected in water-jackets 26.8 per cent. 

Heat rejected in exhaust and other 

losses 57.9 per cent. 



100 per cent. 

The above table of disposition of heat is applicable 
to smaller engines. The efficiency of the gas engine is 
approximately 2y per cent., while the efficiency of the 
complete steam plant does not exceed 12 per cent. 

Fuel Consumption Test. — This is generally made 
with all new engines before they leave the factory, and 
is advantageous as a check of the efficiency of the 
engine as shown by the indicator and the brake tests, 
and this test is also useful to ascertain the exact con- 
sumption of fuel by the engine in actual operation. 



88 OIL ENGINES. 

The oil is weighed, the amount being gauged by 
weight of fuel rather than by measuring the oil. The 
tank or other receptacle from which the fuel is drawn 
is first filled with kerosene. The tank is then placed 
on platform scales, and the weight is carefully taken 
and time noted when the engine is ready to begin this 
test. The full load required is then adjusted on the 
brake while the engine is running at its normal speed. 

The oil can also be measured by means of a pointer 
placed in the tank, the tank being filled until the pointer 
is just visible before the engine is ready for the test 
to commence. The oil is then weighed in a separate 
vessel, and a quantity of the fuel is poured into the test 
tank. When the test is completed; the oil is taken out 
of the tank until the pointer shows again just as it did 
at the commencement of the test. The weight of the 
kerosene remaining in the vessel is deducted from the 
whole weight as at first recorded, and the difference is 
the amount consumed by the engine. It is usual to 
continue this test for at least one hour's duration. Dur- 
ing the consumption test, the load on the brake and the 
number of revolutions per minute are recorded and the 
average brake horse-power developed is taken. The 
exact amount of oil consumed per hour being also 
known, the consumption of oil per H. P. hour is simply 
ascertained. 

Light spring indicator diagrams are taken to ascer- 
tain the efficiency of the air and exhaust valves, ports 
and passages. That shown at Fig. 45 is taken with 
-gV spring. The indicator must be fitted with special 
stop arrangement to prevent the pencil going above 



TESTING ENGINES. 



89 



the drum of the indicator when taking light spring 
cards. 

It is advantageous to have some method of limiting 
the supply of oil to the vaporizer arranged so as to pre- 
vent the engine from consuming an excess of oil at any 
time. This gauge should be made immediately after 
the consumption test has been proved as satisfactory, 
and to avoid possible mistake by alteration of the oil 
supply. As already described, if too much oil enters 




SUCTION 

Fig. 45- 



the vaporizer, bad combustion will follow and carboni- 
zation will, perhaps, result, thus rendering the piston 
sticky and gummy, and materially reducing the effi- 
ciency of the engine. 

The exact periods for the movements of the valve 
and cams should also be clearly marked on the gearing 
or elsewhere, so that if at any future time the crank- 
shaft is taken out or the gearing (or other mechanism) 
between the crank-shaft and the cam-shaft removed, 



90 OIL ENGINES. 

the relative position of the crank-shaft with the valve 
mechanism can be readily ascertained and the exact 
position of the cams again found without difficulty. 

Exhaust Gases. — With an oil engine it is impor- 
tant to note the color of the exhaust gases, which may 
vary a little according to the weather. Where com- 
plete combustion is taking place, the exhaust gases are 
almost, if not entirely, invisible. When the engine is 
first started, these gases will, perhaps, be white, grad- 
ually getting bluer. 

If an oil engine is working well and if the combus- 
tion is complete, the exhaust gases will not be seen but 
only heard, and the piston will also remain clean in 
working. 

Testing the Flash Point of Kerosene. — Fig. 46a 
shows apparatus for ascertaining the " open fire" test 
or the temperature at which kerosene will flash or ex- 
plode. This device consists of a small copper vessel in 
which the kerosene is placed. This vessel is immersed 
in a larger vessel containing water, which forms part 
of the upper part of the apparatus. 

A thermometer is suspended with its lower part in 
the oil. A heating lamp placed under the receptacle 
containing the water raises the temperature of both 
water and oil as required. A lighted taper is passed to 
and fro over the top of the oil as it becomes heated. 
When the vapor given off by the oil flashes the tem- 
perature is noted, and that is termed the " flashing 
point" of the oil thus tested. 

The " Abel" oil-tester is shown at Fig. 46b. This 



TESTING ENGINES. 



91 



was originated by Sir Frederick Abel, and hence its 
name. The tests made with this apparatus are those 
known as the " Abel closed" test. Such tests are recog- 
nized by the law (at the present time) of Great Britain. 




Fig. 46. 



The device consists of a copper vessel containing water 
in which is an air-chamber. In the air-chamber is 
placed an oil-cup made of gun-metal. This oil-cup is 
supplied with tight-fitting lid, and is provided with gas 



92 OIL ENGINES. 

or oil lamp suitably arranged to ignite the oil vapor 
when required. 

Two thermometers are required, one immersed in 
the oil and the other in the water, each having a tight 
joint around it. 

The following are the instructions lor performing 
this test : The heating vessel or water-bath is rilled 
until the water flows out at the spout of the vessel. 
The temperature of the water at the commencement of 
the test is 130 Fahrenheit. The water having been 
raised to the proper temperature, the oil to be tested is 
poured into the petroleum cup, until the level of the 
liquid just reaches the point of the gauge which is fixed 
in the cup. If necessary, the samples to be tested should 
be cooled down to about 6o°. The lid of the cup with 
the slide closed is then put on, and the oil-cup is placed 
in the water-bath or heating vessel, the thermometer in 
the lid of the cup being adjusted so as to have its bulb 
immersed in the liquid. The test-lamp is then placed 
in position upon the lid of the cup, the lead line, or 
pendulum, which has been fixed in a convenient posi- 
tion in front of the operator, is set in motion, and the 
rise of the thermometer in the petroleum cup is 
watched. When the temperature has reached about 
66° the operation of testing is to be commenced, the 
test flame being applied at once for every rise of i° in 
the following manner : 

The slide is slowly drawn open while the pendulum 
performs three oscillations, and is closed during the 
fourth oscillation. Thus a flame is made to come in 
contact with the vapor above the oil. The temperature 



TESTING ENGINES. 93 

at which the vapor flashes is noted, and is called the 
flashing point of the oil. If it is desired to employ the 
test apparatus to determine the flashing points of oils 
of very low volatility, the mode of proceeding is modi- 
fied as follows : 

The air-chamber which surrounds the cup is filled 
with cold water, to a depth of ij inches, and the heat- 
ing vessel or water-bath is filled with cold water. The 
lamp is then placed under the apparatus and kept there 
during the entire operation. If a very heavy oil is be- 
ing dealt with, the operation commences with water 
previously heated to 120 instead of with cold water. 

Viscosity of Oil. — It is frequently advantageous to 
ascertain the viscosity of different oils. The device 
shown at Fig. 46c is manufactured by C. I. Tagliabue 
especially for this purpose. The viscosity of an oil 
with this apparatus is found by noticing the number of 
seconds required for fifty cubic centimetres of oil to 
pass the open faucet or valve. 

To test the viscosity of oil at 212 Fahr. with this 
apparatus, first pour water into the boiler through 
opening A, unscrew safety-valve until water-gauge 
shows that the boiler is full, open stop-cock B, making 
a direct connection between the boiler and upper vessel 
which surrounds the receptacle in which the oil to be 
tested is placed. Suspend a thermometer so that its bulb 
will be about -J inch from the bottom of the oil-bath. 
After carefully straining 70 cubic centimetres of the oil 
to be tested, which must be warmed in the case of very 
heavy oils, pour same into the oil-bath. Close 



94 



OIL ENGINES. 



stop-cocks D and E. Screw the extension F with 
rubber hose attached into the coupling G, and let. the 
open end of the hose be immersed in a vessel of water, 




Fig. 46c. 



which will prevent too large a loss of steam. Place 
lamp or Bunsen burner under boiler ; screw steel nipple 
marked 21 2° on to stop-cock H; the apparatus is then 
ready to use. After steam is generated, wait until the 



TESTING ENGINES. 95 

thermometer in oil-bath shows a temperature of from 
209 to 211 ; then place the 50 cubic centimetre glass 
under stop-cock H, so that the stream of oil strikes the 
side of test-glass, thereby preventing the forming of 
air-bubbles ; and when the thermometer indicates its 
highest point open the faucet H simultaneously with 
the starting of the timing watch. When the running 
oil reaches the 50 cubic centimetre mark in the neck of 
the test-glass the watch is instantly stopped and the 
number of seconds noted. 

To ascertain the viscosity, multiply the number of 
seconds by two, and the result will be the viscosity of 
the oil. For example : If 50 cubic centimetres of oil 
runs through in 101J seconds, the viscosity will then 
be 203. 

To test the viscosity of oils at 70 ° Fahr. screw the 
steel nipple marked 70 on to faucet H ; close stop- 
cock B, closing communication between boiler and 
upper vessel ; also close stop-cock E. Fill upper vessel 
through opening G with water at a temperature as near 
70 as possible, also having the oil to be tested at the 
same temperature ; hang the thermometer in position, 
and after stirring the oil thoroughly, blow through rub- 
ber tube at D to thoroughly mix the water ; should the 
thermometer show higher or lower than 70 add cold 
or warm water until the desired temperature is at- 
tained. Then proceed as before stated. 

[For tables of tests of various oil engines, see end of 
book.] 



CHAPTER IV. 

COOLING WATER-TANKS, AND OTHER 
DETAILS. 

Water is always required to keep the cylinders of 
explosive engines cool, and is necessitated by the great 
heat evolved in such engines, which heat would, if it 
were not carried away, prevent the proper working 
of an engine by too great expansion of the piston and 
by burning the lubricating oil. Where running water 
is not available, water-tanks are sometimes used. 
The engine water-jackets are connected to the tanks 
as shown in Fig. 47. It is important that the water 
piping rises all the way from the engine to the tanks. 
The water, when tanks are used, circulates by gravi- 
tation — that is, the cold water being slightly heavier 
than the hot sinks to the bottom of the tank, passes 
from the tank to the water-jacket, and returns as warm 
water to the top of the tank to be cooled off and again 
sink to the bottom of the tank. 

The cooling water-tanks must be of not less capac- 
ity than 70 gallons of water per brake H. P. of engine. 
The tanks when installed should preferably be placed 
in the best location for cold air to circulate around 



COOLING WATER-TANKS AND OTHER DETAILS. 97 

them, so that the water in the tanks may cool off as 
quickly as possible. 

Where an engine is required to work for more than 
ten hours per day, the tanks should be of larger capac- 
ity than that above stated, or provision should be made 




Fig. 47. 



to add cold water to the tanks when the water becomes 
heated above 120 Fahrenheit. 

The waste-water drain-pipe from the tanks should 
be arranged to allow the hot water to run off from the 
top of the tanks and the cold-water inlet-pipe arranged 
to enter near the bottom. The circulating-water pipes 
connecting the tanks to engine water-jacket should be 
large enough to allow the water to circulate freely. 
A pipe having ij" inside diameter is considered suit- 



98 OIL ENGINES. 

able for the smaller size of engines and 3" diameter 
pipe is sufficient for engines of 25 B. H. P. and over. 

In some installations cooling water is available, but 
may require pumping to the engine. In such cases a 
pump capable of delivering more than ten gallons per 
brake H. P. of engine should be used. This pump can 
be actuated from the cam-shaft of engine as shown in 
Fig- 50, or from the crank-shaft by eccentric in the 
usual way. A rotary pump is sometimes used to ac- 
celerate the circulation of water in hot climates with 
the tank system of cooling water, and can be driven by 
belting from the crank-shaft of the engine. A by-pass 
in the water-pipes between the suction-pipe and the 
discharge-pipe of the water-circulating pump is advan- 
tageous, having a regulating valve in the by-pass. If 
this by-pass is not made, other means should be ar- 
ranged, so that the supply of cooling water can be regu- 
lated to maintain the proper temperature of the cylin- 
der of the engine — namely, no° to 130 Fahrenheit. 
This temperature is recommended by the makers of 
several oil engines. 

Where neither pump to lift and circulate cooling 
water nor water-tanks are necessary and where water 
is used from the city water-mains, f " inside diameter 
pipe is sufficient for small and moderate-sized engines. 
The larger size may have 1" diameter pipe connections 
to cylinder. 

In all cases, either with tanks, water-pumps, or 
where the water is connected direct from the city 
water-main, provision must be made for emptying the 
cylinder water-jacket and all the water-pipes in time of 



COOLING TOWER ON THE TOP OF THE BUILDING 




(To face p. 98.) 




Fig. 48k 



(To face p. 99-) 



COOLING WATER-TANKS AND OTHER DETAILS. 99 

frost. If the water in the water-jacket of the cylinder 
should be allowed to freeze, the cylinder casting may 
be cracked, and this may necessitate very expensive 
repairs. 

Radiators for Cooling Purposes. — This is an ap- 
paratus for cooling the cylinder water of engines, some- 
times used where space is not available for cooling 
tanks, and where the cooling tower shown in Fig. 48^ 
cannot be used, and where the supply of water is lim- 
ited. This device consists of a radiator through which 
the cooling water is forced as it issues from the engine. 
It is made up of a large number of small tubes having 
radiating flanges around them or of other suitable de- 
sign, affording a large cooling surface. A fan operated 
by electric motor is placed in front of the radiator, as 
shown in the illustration, and is arranged to furnish a 
strong current of air passing through the various coils 
of the radiator, taking up the heat of the water in the 
tubes and quickly cooling same. The power required 
by the motor is approximately 10% of the power devel- 
oped by the engine. A difference in temperature can 
be obtained between the inlet and outlet water when 
using this device of from 25 ° to 30 Fahr. 

About 40 gallons of water should be circulated 
through the coils per actual horse-power per hour. 
These figures, however, depend upon the design of the 
radiator and the conditions of temperature under 
which it is to operate. 

On account of the large amount of power absorbed 
by the motor, this outfit is only suitable for special in- 
stallations where other cooling methods cannot be used. 



100 OIL ENGINES. 

COOLING TOWERS 
Where cooling tanks cannot be installed, for instance 
in large installations where enormous capacity of tanks 
would be required, a cooling tower as shown at Fig. 48 
and Fig. 48a can be advantageously used. In this case, 
the heated water as it issues from the engine cylinder 
water-jacket is pumped to the top of the cooling tower, 
which is placed in a position to allow of the best cooling 
effect, the water simply flowing down the surfaces of 
the cooling tower, and its temperature being reduced 
by coming in contact with the air. Where large 
amounts of water have to be cooled, a fan is added to 
increase the draught of air coming in contact with the 
water to be cooled. 

Exhaust Silencers. — The noise from the exhaust 
gases is sometimes considered to be a great objection 
to the use of explosive engines, but this is chiefly due 
to the fact that the ordinary cast-iron exhaust silenc- 
ing chamber supplied with engine is not designed to 
entirely silence the exhaust, but is only regarded as 
sufficient to partly reduce this noise. 

Where it is essential that the exhaust be entirely 
silenced, this can be easily accomplished in the follow- 
ing way : A brick pit should be built as shown in 
Fig. 49. The exhaust-pipe from the engine is then 
connected to the bottom of this pit. The outlet-pipe 
to the atmosphere is connected to the top of the pit. 
The space inside the pit should be filled with large 
stones, as shown in illustration. These stones should 
be about six inches in size, so that crevices are left 



COOLING WATER-TANKS AND OTHER DETAILS. 



IOI 



between them through which the gases can penetrate. 
A drain-pipe should be arranged to allow the water 
to flow out of the pit. The stone or cast-iron plate 
covering the pit is securely fastened down to the 
masonry.* 

With oil-engine exhaust gases there may be some 
odor. When it is necessary that both the noise and the 




odor should be done away with, an exhaust washer 
should be installed instead of the silencing pit, as al- 
ready described. This apparatus consists of a tank, to 
which the water is connected as it issues from the 
water-jacket of the engine-cylinder, or where cooling 

*In some cases the connection is made direct from the 
engine to the silencer, and thence to the pit, the exhaust pipe 
leading to the atmosphere being supported from the cover- 
ing over the pit. 



102 



OIL ENGINES. 






i 


i » M 
















|| 
ij 




^^&Ta3HdSoi 


TFoi" I J J 






~~~t 






-" !—.— HL— 


-^r 





COOLING WATER-TANKS AXD OTHER DETAILS. IO3 

tanks are used the water should be taken from the 
main. About 100 gallons of water are required per 
hour. The exhaust-pipe from the engine valve-box is 
also connected directly to this tank. The outlet of the 
water is connected from the tank to sewer and the out- 
let exhaust-pipe is also connected in the usual way to 
the top of the building. 

The exhaust gases by this arrangement come in 
contact with the water and are partly condensed and 
quite purified. The pressure and noise are eliminated 
entirely, any deposit of carbon left in the gases after 
combustion is carried off by the water to the sewer, 
and there is practically no odor when the gases escape 
from the exhaust-pipe to the atmosphere at the roof. 
This device is shown in Fig. 51. The sizes given for 
piping and tank are those suitable for a 10 to 20 H. P. 
oil engine. The internal piping in the tank is so placed 
to avoid any pressure which is created inside the tank 
due to the exhaust gases of the engine from entering 
the sewer. If any water is blown out at the top of the 
exhaust-pipe, a steam exhaust-head is used for obviat- 
ing this. This apparatus is the same as used on steam 
exhaust-pipes. 

Sizes for piping and tank for a 10 to 20 H. P. oil 
engine : 

Pipe from engine, 3" diameter. 
Pipe of water inlet, §" diameter. 
Pipe to atmosphere, 3" diameter. 
Pipe to water outlet, 2" diameter. 
Size of tank, 2' in diameter by 4' high. 



104 



OIL ENGINES. 



When it is required to partly silence the noise of 
exhaust only part or all of the water from the cooling 
jacket can be turned into the exhaust-pipe directly 
from the water-jacket. The water is allowed to run to 
waste again at the silencer. (See Fig. 52.) Wherever 
water is connected to the exhaust-pipe, care must be 
taken that none can under any condition enter through 




I- 



WATER 
OUTLET 



Fig. 52. 



the exhaust valve-box into the cylinder or vaporizer 
of the engine. Where water enters the silencer or the 
piping under pressure from the city main or otherwise, 
it is necessary that the area of the outlet-pipe be large 
enough to allow the water to drain freely at atmos- 
pheric pressure. If the water is not allowed free 
drainage, it may quickly fill up the silencer, and per- 
haps enter the valve-box of the engine, causing the 
engine to stop working. 



COOLING WATER-TANKS AND OTHER DETAILS. 105 

Self-Starters. — Engines of 25 H. P. and over 
should be provided with separate means of starting 
besides the relief-cam for reducing the pressure of 
compression as usually provided with the smaller sizes 
of engines. The weight of the fly-wheels and recipro- 
cating parts on the larger engines which are to be put 
in motion when being started necessarily entails con- 
siderable exertion, and the strength of two men is re- 
quired to do this work where no other means is pro- 
vided for this purpose. 

There are several different self-starting devices 
made for gas engines, and it is much easier to accom- 
plish this work with a gas than with an oil engine, since 
with the former gas only has to be dealt with and can 
be readily diluted with air and an explosive mixture 
formed, whereas with the oil engine the fuel must be 
vaporized first and then mixed with the air before an 
explosive mixture is available to be ignited and the im- 
pulse on the piston obtained. In order, therefore, to 
accomplish these various operations necessary in the 
oil engine, sufficient power must be independently pro- 
vided to turn the engine crank-shaft over two or three 
revolutions so that the different mechanisms can work, 
the fuel be injected or inducted into the cylinder or va- 
porizer, become mixed with the incoming air and an 
explosion obtained, thus giving the required impulse. 
This power is usually derived from a separate air reser- 
voir charged during the previous running of the 
engine or from a small air-compressor operated by 
hand. 

The self-starter used with the Hornsby-Akroyd type 



io6 



OIL ENGINES. 



of oil engine is shown in Fig. 53. The reservoir is con- 
nected to air and exhaust valve-box of engine through 
a supplementary valve-box containing two check- 
valves. These check-valves are arranged to be lifted 
from their seats by means of the hand-lever as shown. 
The following are the instructions in detail for start- 
ing these engines by means of this device. (These re- 



■& 







Fig. 53- 
marks are generally applicable to all types of engines 
provided with starting devices of this principle.) 

See that the valve A on the steel receiver is open, 
and also the cock B on the pipe leading from the hand 
air-pump. Put the starting lever in the quadrant at 
the position marked " Running and when charged," 
and pin it there. Then screw down the valve C on the 
double valve-box, and pump air into the receiver by the 



COOLING WATER-TANKS AND OTHER DETAILS. 107 

air-pump up to a pressure of say 60 or 70 lbs. to 
the square inch as shown on the gauge. Then close the 
cock B on the air-pump pipe, withdraw the pin in the 
starting lever, and put it in the hole by the side of the 
lever to act as a stop ; then place the engine ready for 
starting as elsewhere described. Place the crank a 
little over the dead centre in whichever direction the 
engine is intended to run, unscrew the valve C in 
double valve-box, and then suddenly push the starting 
lever forward to the end of the quadrant, and the en- 
gine will start. Pull the lever back immediately 
against the pin, and screw down the valves on the 
double valve-box and on the receiver. Before stop- 
ping the engine at any time, pull the lever back and pin 
it in hole marked " To charge ;" unscrew the valves on 
the double valve-box and receiver, and allow the engine 
to pump air into the receiver again to 80 or 100 lbs. 
pressure; put the lever to the centre hole marked 
" When running, and when charged," and pin it there: 
screw down the valves on the receiver and valve-box, 
and the air pressure in the receiver will be retained in 
readiness to start the engine the next time it is re- 
quired. If an air-pump is not provided, the engine 
must be started in the usual w r ay the first time, by pull- 
ing round the fly-wheel, and the receiver afterward 
filled each time before stopping. 

The Utilization of Waste Heat from Oil En- 
gines. — With many, installations of oil engines, the 
question of utilizing the waste heat from the water- 
jacket and exhaust gases is considered. The amount 
of heat lost in this way of course varies with different 



io8 



OIL ENGINES. 



types of engines according to their thermal efficiency. 
Reference to the following table shows the amount of 
heat rejected in the cooling water and exhaust. 

The two greatest disadvantages to the utilization of 
waste heat are : First, the oil engine furnishes heat 
only when in operation, and therefore a separate heater 
is required to furnish the necessary heat when the en- 
gine is stopped; and secondly, as the exhaust gases 
from most oil engines are not clean, accumulation of 
carbon results in the passages through which the 
heated gases pass and necessitates frequent cleaning. 



HEAT BALANCE PER ACTUAL OR B. H. P. 
PER HOUR. 



Received by en- 
gine 0.8 lb. of 
fuel at 19,000 
B. T. U. per lb. 
19,000 X 0.8 lb. 



B. T. U. 
Heat equivalent 
shown on brake 
(82^ mech. ef.) 3,104 
Heat lost to jacket 

water 47.4^ ... . 7,200 
15,200 Heat lost to ex- 
haust 25$ 3, 8o ° 

Lost in radiation 
and unaccount- 
ed for 1,096 

15,200 15,200 

The above table is based on o.*8 lb. fuel consump- 
tion per actual H. P. hour. With engines having a 
higher economy, the amount of heat rejected would be 
reduced. Assume the efficiency of the heating appa- 



COOLING WATER-TANKS AND OTHER DETAILS. IOO, 

ratus to be 68%, then with the heat rejected by the 

water jacket, viz., 11,000 B. T. U.. 7.480 B. T. U. 

should be available for heating purposes per actual 
H. P. per hour. 

I 

Q WATER OUTLET 



-Ef f fE3i 




K.ET 



V. 



X BLOWOfF 

Fig. 54- 



S16 

1 ^'^ '--I 



An apparatus designed to utilize the waste heat from 
the exhaust is shown at Fig. 54. The heat could be 
utilized either by water circulation or by means of 
heated air, a blower being used to pass the cold air 
over the heated water pipes or by steam heat direct. 
With the first arrangement piping in which the water 
is circulated would have to be of sufficient length to 
allow the water to give out its heat. With the second 
arrangement (that of heated air) sufficient quantity 
of air should be pas:?ed over or through the piping in 
which the heated water flows. This heated air is then 
passed through ducts to the spaces to be heated in the 
ordinary way. The third system, namely, steam heat, 
would require the exhaust gases to raise the tempera- 
ture of the water above the boiling point, 21 2° . Each 
pound of steam at 212 c evaporated from water at 140° 
requires 1038 B.T.U. As previously stated, if the 



110 OIL ENGINES. 

efficiency of the heating apparatus is as high as 68%, 
then there is available from the exhaust gases. 

3800 X 0.68 = 2584 B.T.U. per B.H.P. per hour. 

This heat will be sufficient to raise about 2.y 2 lbs. of 
water to 21 2° steam or somewhat less than this amount 
to steam at 15 lbs. gauge pressure. It is estimated that 
3.6 B.T.U. are required to maintain a cubic foot of 
space at 70 ° F. when the weather is at zero outside, 
and 2.6 B.T.U.'s are required to maintain the same tem- 
perature inside when the outside temperature is 20 F. 
These figures, of course, have to be varied with dif- 
ferent buildings. The above figures are also estimated 
with the engine running at full load. At half load 
only about 60% of the heat above referred to would be 
available. 

Exhaust Temperature. — The temperature of the 
exhaust gases is difficult to ascertain correctly. The 
temperature of the exhaust from the Diesel engine is 
recorded by Professor Denton as being approximately 
740 Fahr. The temperature of different oil-engine 
exhaust gases varies, and it is probably considerably 
above that figure. This temperature varies also, of 
course, according to the size of the engine, and also 
according to the power that the engine is developing. 
The heat is greatest at full load and on the largest 
engines. 



CHAPTER V. 

OIL ENGINES DRIVING DYNAMOS. 

Oil engines for many reasons are well adapted for 
driving dynamos generating electric current in isolated 
lighting plants. A large number of such installations 
have been made in recent years. The oil engine is self- 
contained, and, unlike a gas engine, is independent of 
gas works or gas-producer plant for its supply of fuel. 
Small power installations with oil engines as prime 
movers should require also less attention than a plant 
equipped with steam engine and boilers. There is 
probably not the danger there is with a steam engine of 
explosion, and as the fuel used is ordinary kerosene of 
a safe flashing point, there can be little or no fear of 
destruction by fire. Practically, no hauling of fuel is 
required, nor is there, with an oil engine, any consump- 
tion of water if storage tanks are installed. Further, 
an oil engine does not deteriorate if only required for 
part of the year and left standing idle for the remainder 
of the time. With these and, perhaps, other advan- 
tages possessed by oil engines, their adaptability for 
driving dynamos in isolated electric-lighting and power 
plants may be understood. Fig. 55 illustrates an oil 



OIL ENGINES DRIVING DYNAMOS. II 3 

engine driving dynamo with link belt. The dynamo is 
placed close to the engine to economize floor space. 

This plant is arranged with the cams having been 
set for the engine to run backwards. 

Installation. — In order that the plant may be en- 
tirely satisfactory and give the best results, it is very 
essential that the engine and dynamo be correctly 
located with regard to each other and properly installed 
at the outset. 

The foundations both for the engine and for the 
dynamo should be built of good cement concrete, and 
should be placed on solid ground, so that they are 
steady and without vibration. The engine foundation 
can be made as shown at Fig. 56. When, however, the 
ground that the foundation is built upon is not solid, 
it is preferred to build the foundation more tapered 
than shown toward the bottom, thus increasing the 
surface that the concrete rests on. The weight of the 
foundation is considered sufficient allowing about 5 
cubic feet per I. H. P. for engines under 50 H. P. for 
concrete. For engines over 50 I. H. P. the foundation 
can be reduced per I. H. P. If the foundation is built 
of brickwork, its dimensions should be somewhat 
greater than those given for concrete. The ingredients 
of the best concrete are broken stone, Portland cement 
and sharp sand. The fuel tank placed underground 
surrounded with concrete and installed in accordance 
with the requirements of the fire underwriters is shown 
at Fig. 56a. The fuel supply pipe connections and fuel 
supply pump are also shown as required by their 
regulations. 



114 



OIL ENGINES. 




UVHS-XNVUO JO TO 




OIL ENGINES DRIVING DYNAMOS. ' 115 

When driving by belt the distance between the cen- 
tres of the dynamo and the engine-shafts is an im- 
portant feature. Where space is restricted and it be- 
comes essential that the dynamo be placed as close as 
possible to the engine, it is advantageous to use a link 
leather belt, allowed to run quite loose, the part of the 
belt in tension being underneath, the loose part being 
on top, so that the arc of contact made on the smaller 
pulley of the dynamo is as great as possible. This 
arrangement with loose belt lessens the friction on the 
bearings, which would be occasioned if the belt were 
made tight, as required at short centres with ordinary 
leather belt. When using link leather belt, the distance 
between the centres should be with the usual standard 
size of fly-wheels 2 to 2.5 diameters of the engine fly- 
wheels — that is, the distance should not be less than 7 
ft. for wheels of 3' 6" diameter and not greater 
than 15 ft. for wheels of 6 ft. diameter. Where or- 
dinary leather belt is used instead of link belt, this dis- 
tance should be increased to 3 diameters of fly-wheel, 
but in any case this dimension should not exceed 18 
ft. for driving wheels 6 ft. in diameter. To obtain 
absolutely steady light, it is sometimes advantageous to 
place a balance-wheel on the armature shaft of the dy- 
namo. This wheel if used should weigh about 15 
lbs. per K. W. of dynamo, and be of such diameter 
that at the maximum speed of dynamo its peripheral 
speed will not exceed 6000 ft. per minute. This 
wheel must be accurately balanced, and is usually cast 
in one piece with pulley, as shown in Fig. 57. The 



n6 



OIL ENGINES. 



necessary width of belt to transmit the H. P. may be 
calculated as follows : 



H. P.= 



V Xw 



800 



H. P. = the actual horse-power. 

V = velocity of belt in feet per minute. 
w = width of belt in inches. 




The maximum number of incandescent lights avail- 
able from the dynamo per brake or actual H. P. of 
engine varies according to the efficiency of the dynamo, 
and the efficiency of the means of transmission as well 
as to the efficiency of the electrical installation. Lack of 



OIL ENGINES DRIVING DYNAMOS. 117 

power as recorded by the electrical instruments is not 
necessarily due only to defects of the engine, as leak- 
age of power may occur in various ways, as above 
stated. Usually ten 16 candle-power lights per Brake 
H. P. are calculated as being a fair load for the engine. 
With arc lamps of 2000 candle-power, the B. H. P. of 
engine for each lamp required is approximately .75. It 
is advisable to have spare power with an explosive 
engine above that required to run all the lights. Losses 
of power should be allowed for in the belt, which vary 
from 10 to 15 per cent. 

The regulation of explosive engines for electric 
lighting must necessarily be such that there is no 
flicker in the incandescent lights. A speed variation of 
2 per cent, is now guaranteed with several oil engines. 
This regulation gives a very good light and equals that 
developed with many steam engines. 

When space is not available to permit the use of belt 
transmission, the dynamo is connected directly on to 
the shaft of the engine, as in Figs. 58 and 58a. The 
coupling between engine-shaft and dynamo is usually 
flexible to allow of dynamo bearings and the engine- 
shaft bearings remaining in alignment when they be- 
come worn. In direct-connected plants the loss due to 
the belt transmission is avoided, and a saving is thus 
effected; but, on the other hand, the first cost of the 
dynamo is very much greater, running, as it does, at a 
slower speed than the belt-driven machine, and there- 
fore is of larger dimensions, and consequently more 
costly. 

Fig. 58 illustrates a Hornsby-Akroyd engine of the 



OIL ENGINES DRIVING DYNAMOS II9 

twin cylinder horizontal type coupled direct to the 
generator. The illustration shows the engines placed 
each side of the generator with two flywheels and con- 
nected by coupling forged on the shaft. An arrange- 
ment preferred is the two engines placed side by side 
with one heavy flywheel, the generator is coupled to 
the engine shaft and placed on one side. Where this 
outfit has been used for power purposes the timing of 
the air inlet and exhaust cams has been such that the 
explosions have been simultaneous in each cylinder. 
In this way the strain on the generator shaft has been 
reduced. 

Fig. 58a illustrates the Mietz & Weiss horizontal 
type of engine directly connected to dynamo through 
flexible coupling. This engine, being of the two-cycle 
type, receives an impulse at each revolution of the 
crank-shaft, and it runs very regularly and at a high 
rotative speed. 

The method of working of the Mietz & Weiss engine 
is fully described in Chapter IX. 

The fly-wheels of explosive engines intended for 
driving dynamos are usually made heavier than when 
the engines are required for other purposes. (See 
Chapter II.) 

Notwithstanding the special design of engines for 
electric-lighting purposes and apparent correct adjust- 
ment of the governing mechanism, the lights' may 
sometimes be seen to flicker. Flickering in the incan- 
descent lights can be easily located by close inspection 
of the engine and dynamo, and may be due either 
to the fly-wheels, the governor, the belt, or the dynamo 
itself. To precisely locate this defect and remedy it, 



120 



OIL ENGINES 




OIL ENGINES DRIVING DYNAMOS. 121 

notice the lamps carefully. If the variations in the 
light are due to want of fly-wheel momentum, such 
variations will be seen to coincide with the number of 
revolutions of the engine. Again, if the variation in 
the lights is only periodical, then this defect should be 
remedied by adjustment of the governor. Examine 
carefully the governing mechanism of the engine. If 
the variation is caused by the governor acting too 
slowly, then adjust so as to cause more rapid contact 
with the valve or other controlling mechanism. 

The cause of the trouble may not be, as already sug- 
gested, in the fly-wheel momentum or in the adjust- 
ment of the governor, but in the belt, which is fre- 
quently the sole cause of unsatisfactory lighting. The 
engine and dynamo pulleys over which the belt runs 
must be exactly in line with each other. The belt 
should be endless, or if jointed such joints should be 
very carefully made. A thick, uneven joint in the belt 
will cause a flicker in the lights each time it passes over 
the dynamo pulley. The belt should be allowed to run 
as loose as possible. The writer has seen belts running 
quite slack and most satisfactorily when the pulleys 
have been covered with specially prepared pulley-cover- 
ing material. In some instances in the dynamo itself 
may be found the cause of the variation in the voltage. 
If the commutator becomes unevenly worn, or if the 
brushes are not properly adjusted, unsteady lights will 
result, and then the commutator should be made of even 
surface and the brushes correctly adjusted. 

Oil engines can be stopped if desired by pressing 
button in the dwelling-house, an attachment being 



122 OIL ENGINES. 

added to some engines which automatically turns the 
stopping handle. This is an advantage where the light 
is required late at night, and allows the attendant to 
leave the engine early, at the same time providing 
requisite illumination as long as required. 

Air Suction. — The noise created by the air being 
drawn into the cylinder has, in some cases, to be 
silenced. This can be accomplished by connecting the 
air-inlet pipe to wooden box containing space at least 
five times as great as the volume of the cylinder — the 
sides of the box having holes which are lined with rub- 
ber. The total area of all these small inlet air holes 
should be at least three times the area of the air-inlet 
pipe to the engine. 



CHAPTER VI. 

OIL ENGINES CONNECTED TO AIR-COM- 
PRESSORS, PUMPS, ETC. 

The use of compressed air is now being extensively 
applied as a means of power transmission, and it is 
coming more and more into favor in this connection 
also for actuating pneumatic tools, and for other pur- 
poses too numerous to mention. Many advantages are 
claimed for the combination of explosive engines con- 
nected to air-compressors as a motive power. 

Skilled attention is not necessary at all times. There 
are practically no standby losses, and the outfit can be 
easily transported. A small size compressor is shown 
in section at Fig. 59a made by the Bury Mfg. Co., Erie, 
Pa. The normal speed of these compressors being con- 
siderably less than. the normal speed of oil engines, they 
are operated by gearing or by belt from the engine. 

Fig. 60 shows an oil engine geared to air-compressor 
of the ordinary double-acting type. In this outfit the 
power necessary to actuate the compressor is trans- 
mitted by gearing from the engine crank-shaft to the 
compressor-shaft, which then revolves at a slower 
speed than the engine-shaft. This arrangement is con- 




Fig. 59 



{To face />. 124.) 



OIL ENGINES CONNECTED TO AIR-COMPRESSORS. 12$ 

sidered advantageous, because of the slower motion 
of the air-compressor valves as compared with the 
direct-connected outfit. In each of the illustrations the 
air-compressor cylinder is water-jacketed, the circulat- 
ing water being supplied by the small pump actuated 
from the engine cam-shaft, the water being first de- 
livered to the compressor cylinder, and thence to the 
oil engine cylinder. This outfit consists of 13 B. H. P. 
oil engine and "Ingersoll-Sergeant" double acting air- 
compressor having cylinder 8" diameter and 8" 
stroke, and running at 150 revolutions per minute, de- 
livering 70 cubic ft. of free air per minute at 70 to 80 
lbs. pressure. 

The horse-power required to operate a compressor 
delivering an actual amount of air at a given pressure 
can be found from the diagram at Fig. 60c. The theo- 
retical horse-power required to compress 100 cubic 
feet, delivered at various pressures up to 125 lbs. can 
be taken directly from the curves on this diagram. 

In order to find the actual horse-power, the indicated 
efficiency and the mechanical efficiency of the com- 
pressor should be known. The indicated efficiency is 
the relation of the theoretical working diagram to the 
real indicated power. In the curve (Fig. 61 a), the 
actual air delivered is given. Approximately 10% 
should be added to allow for losses due to heating of 
the air, valve resistance and friction. 

Fig. 59 shows a 250 H. P. oil engine of the horizontal 
type direct connected to a two-stage air compressor 
in which the low pressure cylinder is 2o| inches diame- 
ter, and the high pressure cylinder 13J inches, and is 
designed to furnish 1,275 cubic feet at 90 lbs. pressure 
per minute. 



126 



OIL ENGINES. 



•ajnss9J(j aSntj£) 


OHacn^inO*nOmO 
W H N N en 




•& o 

O m doocoo moo r-o Tf in 
O r^co co O O •^■r^O en m 

M M M CM N N 


jiy '-^iuo uoissaaduioQ 


rfO w O O O Oco in o 
q "t Orfoo M 04 O in O CO 

h m CM 4*fit^> do 


jiy 'Aiuo uotssaaduioo 


en in rt* N ^- r-» OO 
m h n ^- vn t^.cd o 


■paiooo }on jjv 


in 

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MMMMMMMMcnenrf 


•8jnss9Jd[ dSnvQ 


O w CM en^J-vnO inO ino 

m m n a en 



OIL ENGINES CONNECTED TO AIR-COMPRESSORS. I2J 



ifiO"'OinO>'iO>fOi'iO>nO<'i 
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128 



OIL ENGINES. 



The outfit runs at 150 R. P. M. The crank-shafts of 
the engine are coupled to the crank-shaft of the air 
compressor by means of couplings forged on the end 
of the shafts. In this case the explosions in the engine 
are timed to take place simultaneously. 

Fig. 60b shows a vertical Mietz & Weiss oil engine 
direct connected to a single acting high speed air com- 
pressor. The engine operates on the two-cycle plan, 




OIL ENGINES CONNECTED TO AIR-COMPRESSORS. I2Q. 



similar to that explained on page 178. It runs at 420 
R. P. M. Diameter of the air-compressor cylinder is 
8" and the stroke 8". The piston displacement being 
approximately 97 cubic feet of free air per minute. 

Another direct connected high speed type of air com- 
pressor is that shown at Fig. 60a, consisting of a De La 
Vergne Type S oil engine of the two-cycle, vertical 
type direct connected to a single acting compressor ac- 
tuated directly from the crank-shaft of the engine and 
running at the same speed, namely, 450 to 500 R. P. M. 
The valves of this compressor are of special design, 
being simply a sheet-steel plate specially adapted for 
running at this high rate of speed. These outfits are 
made up to 25 H. P. 



Table III. 



-Efficiencies of Air-Compressors at 
Different Altitudes. 





Barometric 


, Pressure. 


t; .1 01 h 




Decreased 


Altitude, 






>lume 
icienc 
npre: 
er Ce 


Cfi UfJ 


Power 






feet. 


Inches, 


Pounds Per 


W <$^ J 


Required, 
Per Cent 




Mercury. 


Square Inch. 




^ft 







30.OO 


14.75 


IOO. 


O. 


O. 


IOOO 


28.88 


14.20 


97 




3- 


1.8 


2000 


27.80 


13.67 


93 




7- 


3-5 


3000 


26.76 


13.16 


90 




10. 


5-2 


4000 


25.76 


12.67 


87 




13- 


6.9 


5000 


24.79 


I2.20 


84 




16. 


8.5 


6000 


23.86 


n-73 


81 




19. 


IO. I 


7000 


22.97 


11.30 


78 




22. 


11. 6 


8000 


22.11 


10.87 


76 




24. 


I3-I 


9OOO 


21.29 


10.46 


73 




27. 


14.6 


IOOOO 


20.49 


10.07 


70 




30. 


16. 1 


IIOOO 


I9.72 


9.70 


68 




32. 


17.6 


12000 


18.98 


9-34 


65 




35- 


19. 1 


13000 


18.27 


8.98 


63 




37- 


20.6 


14000 


17-59 


8.65 


60 




40. 


22.1 


15000 


16.93 


8.32 


58 




42. 


23-5 



130 



OIL ENGINES. 



The efficiency of an air compressor is reduced when 
working at high altitudes. Table III. gives such de- 
preciation in efficiency at the different altitudes. 



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Fig. 6 itf. 

OIL PUMPING STATIONS 
Fig. 6i& shows the oil engine connected by friction 
coupling directly with a Goulds triplex power pump. 
The illustration shows a complete pumping station 
used in the oil fields for transporting crude oil from the 
oil fields to the oil refinery. Pressures as high as 900 
to 1,000 lbs. are frequently used in this work and it is 
customary for the engines to operate 24 hours per day 
continuously. The illustration shows several outfits, 
one of which is at all times held in reserve. This illus- 
tration is given to show one of the many applications of 
the oil engine used in connection with a pump. In these 



OIL ENGINES CONNECTED TO AIR-COMPRESSORS. I3I 

cases, the engine operates on crude oil, which is passed 
through the pipe line and effects great economy as 
compared with the steam plant. The oil engine is now 
very largely used for this purpose. 

Oil-Engine Pumping Plants. — Fig. 61 represents 
an oil-engine pumping plant as installed for supplying 




Fig. 62. 



town or village water-supply. This outfit consists of 
13 H. P. oil engine connected by friction-clutch to the 
shaft of a triplex pump having cylinders 6J" diameter 
and 8" stroke. 

The amount of water delivered by this outfit is ap- 
proximately 165 gallons per minute, with total aver- 
age lift of 195 ft. The cost of fuel for running is 



132 OIL ENGINES. 

about 13 cents per hour. Practically, no attention is 
required beyond starting the engine and occasional lu- 
brication. 

Fig. 62 shows a small outfit suitable for supplying 
water to a country-house, and consists of 1^ H. P. 
engine and pump capable of delivering 1200 gallons of 
water with 150 ft. total lift. 

To calculate the theoretical H. P. required to raise a 






Fig. 63. 

given amount of water, multiply the number of gallons 
to be delivered per minute by 8.3, which gives the 
weight ; again, multiply by the total required lift in 
feet, and divide the result by 33,000, thus : 



Number of gallons X 8.3 X height of lift 

H. P. = 

33,000 



OIL ENGINES CONNECTED TO AIR-COMPRESSORS. 1 33 

Example: 165 gallons 195 feet lift 
165 X 8.3 X 195 
33,000 
= 8 H. P. actually required to lift water. 

The friction of the moving parts of the pump has to 
be overcome, and for this and other losses allowance 
is usually made by figuring the efficiency of the pump 
(in the smaller size) at 60 per cent, to 70 per cent. 



Oil Engines Driving Ice and Refrigerating 
Machines. 

Oil engines are now being used in connection with 
small ice and refrigerating machines. 

Fig, 63 represents a plant of this description, con- 
sisting of an oil engine belted direct to a refrigerating 
machine used in this instance for cooling a butcher's 
cold-storage box. 

The refrigerating machines are rated according to 
the amount of ice they are assumed to displace. A 
one-ton machine is one which will effect the same 
cooling in twenty-four hours which a ton of ice would 
do in melting. The chief advantage of the refrigerat- 
ing machine is that while the ice can only produce a 
temperature of 35 ° Fahr. and upward, the refrigerat- 
ing machine can be operated to produce any tempera- 
ture which may be desired. 

In the process of refrigeration, the work which the 



134 OIL ENGINES. 

oil engine has to do is to drive a compressor, and there- 
fore the same principles may be applied to this machine 
as to the ordinary air-compressor already discussed. 
We need only to know how much gas has to be com- 
pressed and the conditions upon which to base the cal- 
culation for the work done in the compressor. It is 
the practice of refrigerating-machine makers to allow 
about 4.5 cubic ft. displacement per ton of refrigera- 
tion — that is to say, a 10-ton machine is one having 
capacity of pumping 45 cubic ft. of gas per minute. 

In the case of the ordinary compressor, we have only 
to consider the final pressure, since the initial pressure 
is always that, of the atmosphere. In the case of the 
refrigerating machine, however, this is not the case, 
for the gas being circulated in a closed circuit may 
have not only a varying final pressure, but also a vary- 
ing suction pressure. These pressures depend upon 
the temperatures obtaining in the cold room and in 
the condenser in a manner which it is not necessary 
to consider in detail. The initial pressure and the final 
pressure being known, the mean pressure may be cal- 
culated in the ordinary way. 

To facilitate this calculation, table No. IV. may be 
consulted. The vertical left-hand column gives the 
initial pressure corresponding to the temperatures 
named in the second column, these being the tempera- 
tures inside the cooling pipes. The top horizontal line 
gives the pressure corresponding to the temperatures 
in the second horizontal line. These temperatures are 
those obtaining in the condenser. 



OIL ENGINES CONNECTED TO AIR-COMPRESSORS. 1 35 










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136 OIL ENGINES. 

The mean pressure corresponding to any two known 
conditions may therefore be taken from the table; for 
example, with a suction pressure of 28 and a condenser 
pressure of 153, the mean pressure is 67.02 pounds. 
The work required to produce a ton of refrigeration, 
therefore, would be 



in which 



33,000 



P = 67.02 pounds. 

L = 4.5 feet. 

A = 144 square inches = I sq. ft. 

N=i. 

Substituting these values, the horse-power is 1.32. 
No allowance is here made for friction, and in small 
refrigerating machines this should be extremely liberal. 

Moreover, on reference to the table it will be seen 
that the machine may happen to be called upon to work 
under conditions where the mean pressure will be very 
much increased ; such, for example, when the back 
pressure is 51 lbs. and the high pressure is 218 lbs. 
Under these circumstances the mean pressure will 
be 94.52 instead of 67.02. For these reasons it is not 
safe to provide for a refrigerating machine of small 
dimensions a power much less than about 3 H. P. per 
ton of refrigeration. Under ordinary conditions of 
running, less than this, and frequently only one-half of 
this will be required, but provision should be made for 
taking care of extreme conditions. 



OIL ENGINES CONNECTED TO AIR-COMPRESSORS. 1 37 

Friction-Clutches. — Where engines of 10 H. P. 
or over are installed, it is a great advantage to have a 
friction-clutch pulley added. This can be attached 
either to the engine crank-shaft or to the intermediate 
or main shaft. Fast-and-loose pulleys are sometimes 
substituted for the friction-clutch. 

With either friction-clutch or fast-and-loose pulleys 
the advantages gained are, first, the ease with which 
the engine can be started, the loose or friction- 
clutch pulley only instead of the whole shaft has to be 
turned when the plant is started, and, secondly, in case 
of accident or other emergency necessitating the quick 
cessation of the revolving machinery, this can be ac- 
complished at once by simply moving over the handle 
of the friction-clutch and pulley. Otherwise without 
the clutch the heavy fly-wheels of the engine remain 
revolving for a minute or so after the fuel of the engine 
is turned off, and being directly connected by belt to 
the shafting and machinery, the whole plant is in mo- 
tion while the momentum of the fly-wheels exists. 

' Friction-clutches are made of various designs by sev- 
eral manufacturers. That shown in Fig. 63a is espe- 
cially adapted for explosive engines. It consists of a 
carrier which bolts to the regular bosses on the fly- 
wheel of the engine, this carrier acting as the journal 
of the pulley, and the mechanism of the clutch is en- 
closed in the same. The clutch has a side grip. The 
pulley, otherwise loose, is thrown into connection with 
the engine fly-wheel by simply pushing in a spindle on 
which a hand-wheel revolves loosely. Two rollers are 
mounted on the end of the spindle, and bearing on 



138 



OIL ENGINES. 



these rollers are the levers which in turn are pivoted to 
the gripping plate and a lug on the levers abuts against 
the adjusting screw. The inward movement of the 
spindle forces these levers apart and draws the grip- 
ping plate in, thus gripping the pulley in a circular vise 



-ENGINE FCY WHEEL 
Showing method of attachcws CLUTCH 




Fig. 63a. 



between the flange on the carrier and the gripping 
plate. To release the clutch the spindle is pulled out, 
and thereby the strain on the levers is removed, thus 
allowing the pulley to run loose. This clutch is known 
as the B and C Friction Clutch Pulley. 



CHAPTER VII. 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR RUNNING OIL EN- 
GINES. 

The attendant, in order to obtain the best results 
from an engine, should first fully understand the 
principle by which the engine he is running works 
and the conditions which it is essential should ex- 
ist in the cylinder to procure proper explosion and 
combustion. These conditions are practically the 
same in all types of oil engines. The explosive mixture 
consists of hydrocarbon gas and atmospheric air, the 
gas being formed from kerosene oil previously gasefied 
or vaporized and properly mixed with air by one or 
other of the different methods, as described in Chap- 
ter I. This mixture is then compressed by the inward 
stroke of the piston before ignition with the two-cycle 
type of engine. The mixture is afterward ignited by 
hot tube, electricity, heated surfaces, or otherwise, as 
also described in Chapter I., and the required impulse 
is then obtained at the piston. If for any reason these 
conditions are not existing, proper explosion and com- 
bustion will not follow. The several reasons which 
prevent proper explosions being obtained are very fully 
described in Chapter III. on " Testing." 



I40 OIL ENGINES. 

The conditions necessary to insure proper working 
are as follows : 

(a) Oil supply to the vaporizer or combustion 
chamber delivered at the correct time, and in such 
quantity as to form proper explosive mixture. Effi- 
cient supply of air. 

(b) Sufficient pressure in the cylinder by compres- 
sion before ignition. 

(c) Correct ignition of the gases, the ignition tak- 
ing place at the proper time. 

Cylinder Lubricating Oil. — It is essential that a 
suitable lubricating oil be used for the piston. The 
great heat evolved in the cylinders of explosive engines 
renders this essential. 

The lubricating oil recommended for this purpose is 
a light mineral oil having a flash point of not less than 
360 Fahr. and fire test 420 Fahr. Gravity test 25.8, 
and having a viscosity of 175 (Saybold test). If waste- 
oil filter is used, the oil filtered must not be employed 
for lubricating the piston at any time. 

The following are instructions as formulated by the 
makers of the different engines, each of the four types 
of vaporizers being here represented, as well as the 
different kinds of igniting devices. 



Hornsby-Akroyd Type. 

The method of working is explained in Chap- 
ter IX., giving general description of these engines. 
The oil-tank in the base of the engine should be fillec 1 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR RUNNING OIL ENGINES. I4I 

and the oil pumped up by hand until it passes the over- 
flow pipe. The water-tanks if used must also be filled 
to the top and the cylinder water-jacket also be full 
of water before starting. 

Preparing to Start the Engine. — On those en- 
gines in which the vaporizer is partially water-jack- 
eted, the valve on the inlet water-pipe should be closed 
before commencing to heat the vaporizer for starting, 
and opened, or partially opened, when running. 

To Heat the Vaporizer. — A coil lamp is used (see 
illustration, Fig. 64) for this purpose; the lamp reser- 
voir should be nearly filled with oil. A little kerosene 
should then be poured into the cup containing asbestos 
wick under the coil and lighted. When this has nearly 
burnt out, pump up the reservoir with air by the air- 
pump, when oil vapor will issue from the small nipple, 
and on being lighted will give a clear flame. When 
it is required to stop the lamp, turn the little thumb- 
screw on the reservoir-filling nozzle and let the air out, 
and remove the lamp from the bracket. The nipple at 
any time can be cleaned with the small prickers which 
are supplied for this purpose. Should the U-tubes get 
choked up, the lower one can be gotten at by unscrew- 
ing the joint just below it, and the other one by screw- 
ing out the nipple from which the oil vapor issues. 
The heating of the vaporizer is one of the most im- 
portant duties to be attended to, and care must be taken 
that it is made hot enough before starting. The at- 
tendant must see that the lamp is burning properly for 
five or ten minutes, or sometimes a little longer, ac- 
cording to the size of the engine. If, however, the 



142 



OIL ENGINES. 



lamp is burning badly, it may take longer to get the 
proper heat. It is most important that the lamp should 
be carefully attended to. 



cu: 


— *t~c 1 

' i ! 

"T^r- T 


i 

j 






VAPORIZING COIL 
SPRAY NOZZLE 

STARTING CUJ> 



FILLING CAP 

AIR VALVE 



AM. BANK NOTE CO. 



Fig. 64. 

To Start the Engine. — Place the starting handle 
to position "Shut," and work the pump-lever up and 
down until the oil is seen to pass the overflow-valve. 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR RUNNING OIL ENGINES. I43 

Then turn the handle to position " Open/' work the 
pump-lever up and down again, one or two strokes, 
then give the fly-wheel one or two turns, and the engine 
will start readily. There is also a handle upon the 
cam-shaft, which, when starting the engine, must be 
placed in the position marked " To Start," and imme- 
diately the engine has gotten up speed this handle 
should be placed in position marked " To Work." 




Fig. 65. 



(See Fig. 65.) When it is required to stop the engine, 
turn the starting handle to the position marked " Shut." 
If too much oil is pumped into vaporizer before start- 
ing it will be difficult to start up. 

Oiling Engine. — See that the oil-cups on the main 
crank-shaft bearings are fitted with proper wicks 
and with other oil-cups are filled with oil. Oil the 



144 



OIL ENGINES. 



small end of the connecting-rod which is inside the pis- 
ton, also the bearings on horizontal shaft and the skew- 
gearing, the rollers at the ends of the valve-levers and 
their pins, and the pins on which the levers rock, the 
governor spindle and joints, the bevel-wheels which 
drive same, and the joints that connect the governor 




Fig. 66. 



to the small relief-valve on the vaporizer valve-box. 
For such purposes, none but the best engine oil should 
be used. 

Oil-Pump. — When the engine is working at its full 
power the distance between the two round flanges A 
and B on the pump-plunger should be such that the 
gauge " i" will just fit in between the flanges. (See 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR RUNNING OIL ENGINES. I45 

Fig. 66. ) The other lengths on the hand-gauge marked 
" 2" and " 3" are useful for adjusting the pump to 
economize oil when running on a medium or a light 
load. Do not screw down the pump packing tight 
enough to interfere with the free working of the 
plunger. 

Running Engines Light or Nearly So. — When 
engines are required to run with light or no load, it is 
best to alter the stroke of the pump to supply only suf- 
ficient oil to keep the engine running at full speed, so 
that the governor occasionally reduces the oil. The 
inlet water-pipe to the vaporizer-jacket should be 
closed when running light also. 

Air-Inlet and Enhaust Valves. — See that the 
air-inlet and exhaust valves are working properly and 
drop onto their seats. They can at any time, if re- 
quired, be made tight by grinding in with a little flour 
of emery and water. The set-screws at the ends of the 
levers that open these valves must not be screwed up 
so high that the valves cannot close ; this can be ascer- 
tained by seeing that the rollers at the other end of 
the levers are just clear of the cams when the project- 
ing part of the cams is not touching them. (See Fig. 
67.) 

Vaporizer Valve-Box. — In this box there are two 
valves. The vertical one is regulated by the governor, 
and when the engine runs too fast the governor pushes 
it down, thus opening it and allowing some oil to over- 
flow into the by-pass, which should only allow oil to 
pass when the governor presses it down, or when the 
starting handle is turned to " Shut." The horizontal 



I46 OIL ENGINES. 

valve in this box is a back-pressure valve, and should 
a leakage occur it may be discovered by slightly open- 
ing the overflow-valve (by pressing it down with the 
hand), when, if there is a leakage, vapor will issue from 
the overflow-pipe, and in that case the valve should be 
examined, and, if necessary, be taken out for inspection 
and ground on its seat with a little emery flour and 
water. If the horizontal valve and sleeve are taken out, 
care should be taken, in replacing them, to use the 
same thickness of jointing material as before. 

Oil-Pipes. — The pipe from the pump to the vapor- 
izer valve-box has a gradual rise from the pump; if 




Fig. 67. 

otherwise, an air-pocket would be formed in which air 
would be compressed upon each stroke of the pump, 
and thus allow the oil to enter slowly and not as it 
should do, suddenly. If the oil gets below the filter 
at any time, work the pump by hand a few minutes, 
holding open the overflow-valve in the vaporizing 
valve-box, so as to get the air well out of the pipes. 
The oil-filter should be taken out and cleaned occa- 
sionally. 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR RUNNING OIL ENGINES. 



147 



Spray Holes. — It may be desirable to take off the 
vaporizer valve-box and clean the little hole or holes 
through which the oil issues. The reamers, or small 
wires supplied, are not for increasing the size of the 
hole, but are simply for cleaning it at any time. 

Testing Oil-Pump. — See that the pump gets its 
proper oil supply. Disconnect the oil-supply pipe 
union attached to vaporizer valve-box, and give the 




Fig. 68. 



pump two or three strokes so as to pump oil up ; then 
press the thumb firmly on the end of the pipe, as shown 
in illustration, Fig. 68. Pump both by a sudden 
jerk, and afterward by a steady pressure. If the 
plunger yields to a sudden jerk and no oil has gotten 
past the thumb over the top of the delivery-pipe, then 
the pump or the pipes contain air. If the plunger does 
not yield to a sudden jerk, but slowly falls under a 
constant pressure, then the suction-valves of pump are 



I48 OIL ENGINES. 

not tight. If necessary, the valve-seats can be renewed 
by lightly driving the cast-steel ball valves onto their 
seats with a small copper punch. If it is required to 
see that the vaporizer valve-box is in order, take off the 
vaporizer valve-box body and sleeve, and connect them 
to the oil-supply pipe from the pump, so that the jet 
from the spraying hole can be directed where it can be 
seen. Work the pump by hand, when the 'jet produced 
should be clear, with distinct and abrupt pauses be- 
tween each delivery. 

The Governor " Hunting." — This may be caused 
by the joints or spindle of the governor becoming bent, 
dirty, or sticky, and requiring cleaning. If the pump 
is not giving a regular supply of oil, it may sometimes 
cause the governor to hunt, and the engine would run 
irregularly. This may occur when the engine is first 
started. 

The Crossley Patent Type. 

Starting. — Heat the ignition-tube by means of the 
lamp in the usual way. The pressure (about '60 
lbs.) necessary to raise the oil to the lamp in this 
engine is taken from the oil-tank, the air pressure be- 
fore starting being created by hand. This lamp heats 
both the ignition-tube to a good red heat and vaporizer 
blocks to less heat simultaneously. The necessary 
pressure to raise the oil to the lamp is maintained by 
the pump actuated from the cam-shaft when the en- 
gine is running. 

Priming Cup. — Fill the little brass priming cup on 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR RUNNING OIL ENGINES. I49 

the top of the vaporizer cover with oil ; open the valve 
and let the oil pass through into the vaporizer, and 
then shut it again. Leave the wire on the chain out of 
the measurer. Place the exhaust roller over to engage 
with the one-half compression cam ; turn the fly-wheel 
until the crank-pin is about one inch above the hori- 
zontal (both valves being closed) ; open the stop-valve 
on the end of air-receiver ; connect up the oil-pump by 
replacing the back-pin, having first made a few strokes 
with the hand-pump until the oil-pipe is full up to the 
measurer, and turn the quadrant on air-throttle valve. 
The engine is now ready to start, and the air under pres- 
sure from receiver may be let in. Loosen the screw of 
starter valve ; open the valve by means of the loose lever, 
and hold open until the crank has just passed the verti- 
cal position. This impulse will be sufficient to turn the 
fly-wheel a few times, during which the piston will re- 
ceive regular impulses. The exhaust roller may then be 
moved off the one-half compression, when full speed 
will be steadily attained. 

As soon as convenient the screw on the starting 
valve may be unscrewed to allow the receiver to be- 
come recharged again. Should the engine miss explo- 
sions, and fail to attain full speed, then turn the lid of 
measurer partly around and give a little extra supply 
of oil from a hand-can. 

Air Supply. — At full speed the air-throttle must be 
opened to admit more air, and the amount must be 
judged as to whether the engine ignites its charges or 
not; too much air will cause it to miss fire — too little 
air causes too sharp firing. If the receiver is not 



150 OIL ENGINES. 

charged, and it is required to start engine by hand, pull 
around the fly-wheel and get up as much speed as pos- 
sible before putting the governor blade in position for 
engaging with the governor mechanism which opens 
the gas-valve. 

Vaporizer Block. — The vaporizer block must be 
well heated previous to starting; otherwise unvapor- 
ized oil will be carried over into cylinder, and thus 
make starting uncertain until the oil has all passed 
away in evaporation. This may also cause puffs of 
vapor to rush out of the air inlet at the top of the 
chimney, preceded by a slight explosion in the vapor- 
izer block. This is caused by late ignition in cylinder, 
and is due to insufficient vaporization or to the ignition- 
tube not being hot enough. 

Vapor Valve. — If small puffs of vapor issues 
out of the air-pipe of the chimney every other revolu- 
tion while the engine is running, it is a proof that the 
vapor-valve is not tight and must be cleaned and 
ground on its seating. 



Campbell Oil Engine. 

Starting. — Before starting the engine, see that the 
vaporizer is thoroughly well heated. The lamp under 
the vaporizer should burn with a long, bright flame. 
When the vaporizer is sufficiently heated, throw the 
governor drop-lever down, thus holding the exhaust- 
valve open and relieving the compression. While this 
lever is held down, give a quarter or a half turn of the 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR RUNNING OIL ENGINES. I5I 

oil-cock; then turn the fly-wheel quickly four or five 
revolutions, and allow the governor drop-lever to be 
free. It will swing up clear of the exhaust-lever and 
allow a charge of air and oil to be driven into the vapor- 
izer ; the engine should then commence working. After 
the engine has started, turn on a little more oil. If the 
oil taken into the vaporizer should not explode prop- 
erly, the oil-cock must be shut and opened again 
quickly to allow any superfluous oil which has lodged 
in the vaporizer to be drawn out of it and vaporized. 
When using a heavy oil, open the inlet-valve to allow 
more air to flow into the vaporizer. 

Air and Oil Supply. — Too much oil passing to the 
vaporizer will cause the engine to miss exploding or to 
explode irregularly. To increase the air supply, 
slacken the nuts and tension of air-inlet valve; by 
tightening the nuts and spring, the air supply is de- 
creased. 

Ignition-Tube. — See that the inside of the ig- 
nition-tube is kept clear from oil, and keep all the 
valves clean and the governors free from oil and dirt. 
When the engine is running properly, the quantity of 
oil required is the same, whether the engine is running 
at light or heavy load. 

Governors. — The governors cut out some of the 
charges at light loads and admit more charges of oil at 
heavy loads ; each charge, however, has the same com- 
position of vapor and air. 



152 OIL ENGINES. 



The Priestman Type. 

Starting. — Open the drain-cock in the vaporizer 
and see that the vaporizer contains no oil; then close 
the cock. Fill the oil-tank to the small upper-pet cock, 
through the strainer provided and screw down the re- 
lief air-valve. Lubricate the piston wrist-pin and the 
crank-bearing between the fly-wheels. Drop a little oil 
on the pump-piston and in the oil holes of the bearings 
of the large gear-wheels, the eccentric, and all other 
bearings. Mineral oil must not be used on the governor 
oil spindle which projects into the spray-maker. 

Electric Igniter. — Raise the electric fork-handle 
slightly. This is done in order to produce the igniting 
spark somewhat later for starting than is required when 
the engine is running at full speed. Turn the fly-wheels 
forward until the small knob on the cam-shaft has just 
passed the contact with the forks, and the crank-pin is 
then just clear of the large gear-wheel. 

Heating Vaporizer. — Heat the vaporizer until the 
lower part of the feed-pipe leading to the inlet-valve is 
too hot to be comfortably held by hand. When the va- 
porizer is sufficiently heated, pump up 6 or 8 lbs. 
gauge air pressure in the oil-tank with the hand- 
pump ; open the oil-cock, and then give the fly-wheels a 
few turns with the starting handle. After starting, 
move the electric fork-handle down as far as it will go. 

Air Supply. — Set the air-relief valves for giving 
about 8 to 10 lbs. air pressure in the oil-tank. The most 
suitable running pressure in a given locality as indi- 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR RUNNING OIL ENGINES. 1 53 

cated by the gauge, has to be determined by experiment. 
With the air pressure too low or too high, the engine 
may miss explosions. The best test for this is the color 
of the ignition-plug. When the pressure is right, the 
plug will be perfectly clean. If the plug is coated with 
an oily black substance, it is a sign of too much oil — 
that is, too high <*. pressure. To stop the engine, turn 
off the oil-cock. When stopped, see that the electric 
circuit is not closed, or the battery energy will be 
wasted. 

General Remarks. — If an oil engine is working 
properly and efficiently, it should run smoothly to the 
eye, without knocking either in the cylinder or bear- 
ings. The piston should continue to work clean and be 
well lubricated, without any apparent carbon or gummy 
deposit. The exhaust gases at the outlet-pipe should 
be invisible or nearly so. The explosion should be 
regular and should be only reduced in pressure when 
the governor is reducing the explosive charge and al- 
lowing only part or none of the charge of oil to enter 
the cylinder. 

If the piston is black and gummy, or if the exhaust 
gases are like smoke, then the combustion inside the 
cylinder is recognized as being incomplete, and the 
cause should at once be ascertained and remedied. 

Bad combustion may be due to several reasons, but is 
chiefly caused by improper mixture of air and gases in 
ihe cylinder, due either to too much oil entering into 
the vaporizer or to insufficient amount of air being 
drawn in mixed with the hydrocarbon gas. To remedy 
this defect, examine the oil-inlet valves or spraying de- 



154 OIL ENGINES. 

vice carefully ; also see that air and exhaust valves are 
allowed to drop freely on their seats., and that springs 
or other mechanism for closing the valves are in good 
shape. Examine piston-rings and ascertain that the 
rings are in good order and are not allowing leakage 
of air to pass them. 

Regulation of Speed. — To alter speed of the en- 
gine with the hit-and-miss type of governor, the spring 
is strengthened or the weight reduced to increase 
speed. The weight is effectively increased by moving 
it toward the end of the lever away from the fulcrum- 
pin, and vice versa to reduce speed. The strength of 
the spring is increased by tightening down the thumb- 
screw nut. With the Porter type of governor where 
counterbalance with movable counterweight is pro- 
vided, the speed is accelerated by increasing the sup- 
plementary weight, or by placing it nearer the end of 
the lever. If the centrifugal force of the revolv- 
ing weights is controlled by a spring instead of 
weight, then the speed is increased by strengthening 
the spring. 

Reversing Direction of Rotation. — In order to 
reverse the direction of rotation of an explosive engine, 
it is necessary to change the relative position of the 
cams actuating the air and exhaust valves and fuel 
supply so as to alter the periods of opening and closing 
of these valves, and also to change the period of fuel 
supply. In those engines in which one cam controls 
both the air-inlet valve and the fuel supply, the shift- 
ing of this one cam alone effects the change necessary.* 
Where the fuel supply is operated separately, the cam 

*The position of the exhaust cam to conform to the 
diagrams in Fig. 69 is changed by alteration of the gear- 
ing in the cam shaft. 



INSTRUCTIONS FCR RUNNING OIL ENGINES. 1 55 

or eccentric controlling this mechanism must be moved 
correspondingly with the air-valve cam. 

The following diagrams give the correct positions 




Fig. 69. 



of the opening and closing of the valves when the 
engine is running in each direction, and the cams as set 
for each case are shown in Fig. 69, the slot for key- 
way in the air-inlet cam having been changed only. 



I56 OIL ENGINES 

Where the air-inlet valve is automatic and the ex- 
haust valve only is actuated from the crank-shaft, then, 
to reverse the direction of rotation of the crank-shaft, 
the position of the exhaust-cam only is changed, corre- 
sponding to the position as marked for the exhaust 
valve in diagram shown in Fig. 69. 

The lip for regulating the compression when start- 
ing the engine only, which is usually found on the ex- 
haust cam, will require adjustment when the engine 
is reversed so as to close the exhaust valve when ap- 
proximately one-half the compression stroke has been 
completed. The direction of rotation for which the 
cams of the engine are adjusted can be ascertained by 
turning the fly-wheei until the exhaust cam commences 
to open the exhaust valve. If the exhaust valve is 
opened when the crank-pin is above the outward cen- 
tre, as shown on the diagram to the right in Fig. 69, 
then the direction of the engine is "over" or away from 
the cylinder. When the exhaust valve opens below 
the centre of the crank-pin, as shown in diagram to the 
left in Fig. 69, then the direction of rotation of the fly- 
wheel will be "under"; that is, the upper part of the 
fly-wheel will revolve toward the cylinder. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
REPAIRS. 

Oil Engines as made by most of the makers are of 
substantial construction, with ample bearing surfaces, 
and consequently require few repairs. The lower initial 
pressures of explosion evolved in oil engines as com- 
pared with some gas and gasoline engines considerably 
lessens the severe shock to the piston and to the crank- 
shaft bearings and connecting-rod bearings. All 
machinery requires repairs more or less according to 
the care that it receives, and oil engines are not an ex- 
ception to this rule. 

The Piston should be drawn out occasionally ; this 
is done by uncoupling the connecting-rod crank end 
bearings and pulling the piston out. Chain-block is 
sometimes added to the installation of large engines, 
and it is a very useful adjunct when it is required to take 
out the piston or when other repairs have to be made. 
Where no arrangement of this kind is available when 
the piston is to be taken out, wooden packing is placed 
in the engine-bed, on which the piston can rest as it is 
drawn out. Care should be taken that the weight of 
the piston as it is drawn from the cylinder does not 
fall on the piston-rings or they may thus be broken. 



158 OIL ENGINES. 

With the vertical type of engine the piston is taken out 
from the top, the cylinder head and other parts having 
been removed. 

The piston should be washed with kerosene and well 
cleaned. When putting piston back in place, each ring 
should be put separately in exact position in its groove 
as regards the dowel-pin in piston groove before the 
ring enters the cylinder. The piston, the rings, and the 
inside of the cylinder must all be carefully cleaned and 
well lubricated with proper oil before being again put 
in place. Where the rings require cleaning, this can 
be accomplished by washing with kerosene. If, how- 
ever, the piston-rings are to be taken off the piston, 
they must be separately sprung open by having pieces 
of sheet metal about 1-16" thick and about J" wide in- 
serted between ring and body of piston. 

Air and exhaust valves should also be periodically 
taken out, cleaned and examined, and, if necessary, re- 
ground in. Powdered emery or glass powder is con- 
sidered satisfactory to grind the valves in with. 

Care should be taken, in replacing valves, that they 
are clean and free from rust or carbon, and are allowed 
to drop on their seats freely and do not stick in their 
guides. 

The crank-shaft bearings will periodically require 
taking up as they show signs of wear and commence 
to knock or pound. Usually, for this adjustment, 
liners are left between the cap and the lower half of 
bearings. These liners can be occasionally reduced in 
thickness, so that the cap is allowed to come down 
close on to the shaft. Great care must be taken, in 



REPAIRS. 



159 



tightening down the bearing again after adjustment, 
that it is not bolted down too tight on the shaft bear- 
ings ; otherwise heating will result and the bearings 
and journal may be cut and damaged in running. 

The connecting-rod bearings will require adjustment 
more often than the crank-shaft or main bearings. 




Fig. 70. 



When this is necessary, the engine will be heard to 
knock at each revolution, and then the bearing should 
be taken apart at the crank-pin bearing and about 
1-64" filed off. (See A, Fig. 70.) As with the crank- 
shaft bearings, great care, in putting bearing back in 
place, must be exercised, first to see that it is thor- 
oughly clean and free from dirt, and also, when read- 
justed, that it has a slight motion sideways and can 
thus be moved by hand. 

When fitting new piston-ring, it is well to place the 



l6o OIL ENGINES. 

ring in the cylinder correctly; it should have slight 
space, about 1-64" left for the expansion between the 
joint which will take place when heated in working. 

After fitting new worm or spur gearing to the valve 
motion, the positions of the cams should be tested by 
turning the fly-wheel over by hand. The correct posi- 
tions of the cams are shown on diagram, Fig. 32. 

The oil-filter requires occasional renewing ; this can 
be made of muslin placed between wire gauze, as 
shown in Fig. 28. The oil-supply pump-valves, if 
they consist of steel balls, can be refitted to their seats 
by being tapped when in place with copper plug or 
piece of wood. When renewing governor parts, care 
must be taken that the new part is free and works 
without friction; this is very essential where close 
regulation of speed is required. 



CHAPTER IX. 
OIL ENGINE TROUBLES. 

The requirements for proper working of the oil en- 
gine have been already mentioned in Chapter VII. as 
follows : Proper oil and air supply to the cylinder or 
vaporizer, proper mixture or combination of air and 
vapor, correct and properly timed ignition. Defects 
which may cause improper working have also been re- 
ferred to in Chapter III. on testing. 

The following remarks are chiefly applicable to the 
operator, and refer to difficulties which may possibly 
be encountered in the actual use of the oil engine. 

Troubles of Ignition. 

The Electric Igniter. — This igniter is described 
in Chapter I. Failure in operation is generally due 
to the following causes : 

Breakage in One or Other of the Electrical 
Connections. — To discover the breakage test with a 
length of wire in the hands bridged across between the 
terminals of the connection which is thought to be de- 
fective, the circuit through the cam-shaft being closed. 
If a spark is then given off the defect has been located 
and a new connection should be put in place. In 



l62 OIL ENGINES. 

some instances a spark is not produced because the bat- 
tery is run down ; this defect can be ascertained by test- 
ing the battery with a small volt meter or by bringing 
both terminals in contact one with another from the 
battery; a strong spark should then be seen. If the 
battery is run down, it must, of course, be recharged 
or renewed. The terminals in the cylinder must al- 
ways be clean and free from carbon deposit. This is 
important especially with a jump-spark plug igniter, 
as the terminals in the cylinder will sometimes become 
carbonized or corroded, thus forming a path for the 
current to flow across without causing any spark. 

Failure to obtain electric spark ignition may occur 
from bad insulation of the plug. In this case a new 
plug should be substituted for the defective one. In 
some instances the electric spark is not procured be- 
cause the plug is short-circuited, due to moisture. To 
overcome this the plug must be thoroughly cleaned 
and dried out or a new plug must be substituted. With 
the type of igniter having movable electrode, owing 
to friction or carbonizing, the two electrodes may be 
prevented from touching. In this case the moving 
electrode should be eased or cleansed and allowed to 
come freely in contact with each other. 

The timing of the ignition with the electric igniter 
is regulated by altering the time of contact. The period 
of ignition varies according to the speed of the engine. 
With a high speed the ignition should take place just 
before the crank-pin arrives at the dead centre ; with a 
slow-speed engine the time of ignition can be slightly 
later ; that is, the ignition may take place as the crank- 



OIL ENGINE TROUBLES. 163 

pin passes the dead centre. When starting the engine, 
the ignition is retarded until the normal speed of the 
engine is attained. 

Tube Igniter. — Troubles with this form of igniter 
are generally due to corrosion internally of the tube. 
This is remedied by taking the tube out and thor- 
oughly cleaning it. In other instances ignition is not 
obtained because the tube is not properly heated. The 
temperature of the tube should be maintained at a good 
red heat. With the tube igniter it is essential that the 
gases can properly enter it. The timing of ignition 
with this form of igniter can be varied by changing 
the length of the tube or by altering the part of the 
tube which is heated. If an earlier ignition is re- 
quired, the tube should be heated nearer to the cylin- 
der end, or a shorter tube should be used. If it is re-< 
quired to retard the time of ignition, the tube can be 
heated further from the cylinder, and accordingly the 
gases to be ignited will not come in contact with the 
heated part so rapidly. 

Automatic Igniter. — In order to procure proper 
ignition with this form of igniter, it is essential that the 
compression of the air and gases is efficient. This 
pressure varies in different types of engines, and, as 
will be seen from the indicator cards shown in Chap- 
ters III. and X., is from 50 to 70 lbs. The mixture 
of air and oil vapor must also be correct. Failure to 
obtain an ignition with this type of engine is usually 
due to too much oil having been allowed to enter the 
vaporizer or cylinder, or to the fact that no oil at all 
has entered the vaporizer, or, as already stated, to fail- 



164 OIL ENGINES. 

ure to obtain proper compression. Ignition, of course, 
cannot be obtained when starting unless the vaporizing 
chamber or retort has been properly heated. . 

Oil Supply. — If the oil supply is defective, the fault 
can be ascertained by careful examination. Discon- 
nect the oil-supply pipe and see that oil flows freely 
from the tank. Sometimes the oil filter in the tank 
will become clogged and will not allow the oil to flow 
through it. If oil is supplied by a pump, therf test the 
pump, as shown on page 147. Failure of the pump 
to operate properly is due to leaky valves or to the 
packing around the plunger, allowing air to leak by, 
and thus the proper pressure in the pump is lost. 

The oil supply may fail by reason of leakage in the 
oil pipes. This may easily happen where the oil tank 
•is placed below the level of the engine and the oil has 
to be raised from the tank by pump. In such a case 
the engine may operate when the pump is 
working at full stroke, whereas otherwise no oil will 
be delivered to the cylinder or vaporizer. 

Air Supply. — Defective air supply is due to leak- 
age in the piston-rings, piston, or to leakage in the air 
and exhaust valves. The compression in the cylinder 
is, of course, governed by the air supply, and a leakage 
in the valves or piston can be tested by simply turning 
the engine backwards. With proper compression it 
should be difficult to turn the crank-pin past the in- 
ward dead centre during the compression period. 

Knocking. — An engine working properly should be 
quiet in operation. Knocking may be due to either 
loose bearings in the connecting-rod, piston or crank- 



OIL ENGINE TROUBLES. 1 65 

pin end, to loose fly-wheel keys, or to improper timing 
of ignition. The first two defects can be ascertained 
by examination. The timing of ignition is most easily 
ascertained from the indicator card. (See page 76.) 

Loss of Power. — This may be due to increased fric- 
tion in the engine, which friction may be caused by bad 
lubrication of the piston or the piston becoming 
gummed up, due to improper combustion or to the use 
of improper lubricating oil. (See page 140.) Loss of 
power may also be due to heated bearings. Either of 
these causes can be easily ascertained. Insufficient oil 
or fuel supply due to the wearing of the moving parts 
and consequent reduction of the pressure of explosion 
is sometimes responsible for the loss of power. To 
overcome this the supply of fuel can be slightly in- 
creased. That the proper amount of fuel is being sup- 
plied can be roughly ascertained by the color of the 
exhaust gases. If too much oil is supplied the ex- 
haust gases will be plainly visible. With the correct 
oil supply the exhaust gases will be invisible or near- 
ly so. 

Piston Blowing. — This is due to the various fol- 
lowing causes : Improper lubrication, to the piston- 
rings leaking, to the piston-rings- having become 
clogged, or to the cylinder having become cut or worn. 
It is also sometimes due to over-expansion of the 
cylinder, caused by over-heating and insufficient water 
supply. If the blowing of the piston cannot be reme- 
died by proper lubrication or by thoroughly cleaning 
the piston-rings new piston-rings must be put in place. 
In some •cases it is even necessary to re-bore the 



l66 OIL ENGINES. 

cylinder and have new piston and rings. The blowing 
of the piston may be also caused by improper combus- 
tion due to too great an oil supply or insufficient air 
supply. Escape of vapor from the open end of the 
piston, which is thought to be a leakage, is sometimes 
caused by the splashing of the oil on the overheated 
bearings or the heated portion of the piston. This can 
be ascertained by stopping the engine. If vapor con- 
tinues to escape when the engine is at rest, its cause 
is apparent, and then the supply of lubricating oil to the 
cylinder can be reduced. 

Explosions in the Muffler or Silencer. — A 
loud report may sometimes be heard, caused by the ex- 
plosion in the exhaust pipe or muffler. This is due 
to the gases passing through the cylinder unconsumed 
and then becoming ignited in the silencer. It is not 
possible to create a dangerous pressure in this way, 
and as the silencer is usually a heavy cast-iron cham- 
ber and always open to the atmosphere, the worst re- 
sult is annoyance of the noise. Explosions in the si- 
lencer or exhaust pipe can be obviated by reduc- 
ing the oil supply, and are often caused by starting the 
engine before the igniting apparatus is sufficiently 
heated to cause proper ignition. 

Leakage of Water. — Engines will sometimes re- 
fuse to operate due to this cause. Leakage of water 
can easily be ascertained by examination of the piston 
and cylinder, or the piston can be withdrawn from the 
cylinder. Testing of the water-jackets has already 
been explained in Chapter III., and the leakage, if 
found, must be remedied by new joints. If such leak- 



OIL ENGINE TROUBLES. 167 

age is due to defect in the casting, it can sometimes be 
remedied by drilling out the defective material and by 
tapping and plugging the cylinder walls or other de- 
fective part. This work, however, requires consid- 
erable care to thoroughly overcome the leakage. 



CHAPTER X. 

VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 

The Crossley Oil Engines 

Figure 71 illustrates the Crossley oil engine having 
one heavy fly-wheel. Their "lampless" type of engine 
is shown in Fig. Jia, which has their latest vaporizer 
shown in section at Fig. 3 and two heavy fly-wheels 
suitable for electric lighting purposes. The method of 
vaporizing and igniting used with the Crossley engine 
is fully described in Chapter I. devoted to that subject. 

The fuel oil-tank is placed against the cast-iron base 
of the engine, and the oil is pumped to the vaporizer 
in the usual way by an oil-pump actuated by the cam- 
shaft and in regular fixed quantities, but the fuel is 
allowed to enter the vaporizer only in exactly the 
proper quantity, the oil supply being controlled by the 
special measuring device, which consists of an inlet 
automatic valve leading to the vaporizer and an over- 
flow-pipe leading back to the oil-tank. If the oil supply 
from the pump at any time is greater than the amount 
of oil which should enter the vaporizer, the fuel is re- 



i7o 



OIL ENGINES. 



jected by the oil-measuring device, which is actuated 
by the partial vacuum in the cylinder during the air- 




Diagram from the Crossley Engine: Revolutions per minute. 
180 ; M. E. P., 69 lbs. ; compression pressure, 48 lbs. ; 
maximum pressure, 240 lbs. 




Diagram from Crossley Engine: Revolutions per minute, 
180; M. E. P., 50 lbs.; compression pressure, 50 lbs.; 
maximum pressure, 180 lbs. 



suction period. The oil then returns through the over- 
flow-pipe to the tank. 




d 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 



171 



The centrifugal governor is actuated by separate 
gearing and horizontal shaft direct from the crank- 




shaft, and the governor regulates the speed of the 
engine bv acting on the hit-and-miss system, and con- 



172 OIL ENGINES. 

trols the vapor inlet-valve to the cylinder. Thus, if 
the required speed of the engine is exceeded, the 
vapor-valve is not opened, and accordingly only air is 
drawn into the cylinder through the air-inlet valve on 
the top of the cylinder, which is actuated by eccentric 
from the cam-shaft. No oil vapor is drawn into the 
cylinder, and the next explosion is missed. The lamp 
for heating the vaporizer receives its supply from the 
oil-tank placed against the base of the engine. The oil 
for the lamp is supplied by a separate pump, both oil- 
pumps being actuated from the same eccentric. 

The Cundall Oil Engine. 

This oil engine is illustrated in Fig. 72, and it 
has oil-tank in the cast-iron base of engine, the fuel be- 
ing pumped to the vaporizer in the usual way, the oil 
supply being regulated by a small adjustable thimble 
inside the cup on the vaporizer. The vaporizer and 
tube are heated by separate lamp supplied from oil-tank 
placed above the engine by gravity feed. Both air and 
exhaust valves are actuated fron^ the horizontal cam- 
shaft in the usual way. The centrifugal governor is 
operated by bevel-gearing from the cam-shaft and con- 
trols the speed by acting on the oil-inlet valve. 

The Campbell Oil Engine. 

Fig. 73 illustrates larger-sized engine fitted with one 
fiy-wheel only and outside bearing suitable for electric- 



174 



OIL ENGINES. 



lighting purposes. The vaporizing and igniting appa- 
ratus of this type is described in Chapter I. The fuel 




Light-load diagram taken from Campbell engine: Cylinder, 
9.5" in diameter; stroke, 18"; revolutions per minute, 210; 
M. E. P., 55.9 lbs. 




Full-load diagram from Campbell Engine: Cylinder, 9.5" in 
diameter; 18" stroke; revolutions per minute, 210; 
M. E. P., 69.25 ; compression pressure, 55 lbs. ; maximum 
pressure, 232 lbs. 



oil-tank is placed on the top of the cylinder and the 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 1 75 

fuel is fed by gravitation to the vaporizer and to the 
heating lamp, there being no oil-pumps. There are only 
two valves — the air-inlet valve, which is automatic, and 
the exhaust-valve, which is operated by the cam, which 
is actuated by spur-gearing from the crank-shaft, the 
necessary power to open the valve being transmitted 
through the horizontal rod in compression. The cen- 
trifugal governor is mounted on separate horizontal 
shaft, and is actuated by separate gearing from the 
crank-shaft. The speed of the engine is controlled by 
suitable device which is inserted by the action of the 
governor between the exhaust-lever and the stationary 
bracket when the normal speed is exceeded, thus hold- 
ing open the exhaust-valve and preventing any of the 
oil vapor and air from entering the cylinder during the 
suction period. 



Priestman Oil Engine. 

Fig. 74 represents this type of engine as made by 
Messrs. Priestman in the United States. 

The design of this engine is upon the " straight line" 
principle, and differs from the other engines herein 
described. In this engine, both the fly-wheels are ar- 
ranged to be inside of the main shaft bearings instead 
of at each side of the frame, as is usual. The makers 
claim great advantages for this design, inasmuch as the 
strain on the bearings is minimized. The crank-pin is 
placed between the two fly-wheels, the hub of each fly- 



176 



OIL ENGINES. 



wheel becoming the cheek of the crank. The oil-tank 
is placed in the bed of the engine; an air pressure of 
five or six pounds is always maintained in this tank by 
means of the separate air-pump actuated from the 
cam-shaft by eccentric. The vaporizer spraying and 
igniting' devices are fully described in Chapter I. 
The governor is driven by belt from the crank-shaft 




Fig. 74- 



and is of the centrifugal or pendulum type. The 
speed of the engine is controlled by suitable mechanism 
acting on the throttle-valve regulating the supply of 
oil and air entering the vaporizer. The air-inlet valve 
to the cylinder is automatic, the exhaust-valve being 
actuated by horizontal rod operated from a cam placed 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 



177 



on the cam-shaft. This engine, it is claimed, requires 
little or no lubrication for the piston. 

The following test was made in the Engineering 
Laboratory at University College, Nottingham, Eng- 
land, on single-acting horizontal English type of 
Priestman oil engine having cylinder 10 J" dia. and 



£uZZ -pettier, 
/ictZf * * 




ca rrra jaherLC 



7rne> 



04 Q3 Q-3 ofitq.Hi. "aU m au2> i ^ecc_ 

Indicator Card of the Priestman Engine. 



14" stroke, capable of developing iof actual or brake 
horsepower at 160 R. P. M. The test was made after 
seven years' service of the engine using American 
kerosene, known as Royal Daylight, specific gravity 
0.792 at 6o° Fahr. and having flash point 83° Fahr. 
The effective work recorded is the effective indicated 



1^8 OIL ENGINES. 

pressure in the cylinder, the back pressure of the ex- 
haust and suction strokes being deducted.* 

Table V. 

TRIALS OF PRIESTMAN OIL ENGINE, DEC. 9, I9OO (ROBINSON). 

Duration of run (hours) — 2 

Revolutions per min. mean — 160 

Pressure before ignition (above atmos- 
phere), lb. per sq. in — 20 

Mean pressure, lb. per sq. in — 44 

Mean back pressure (pumping strokes) 

lb. per sq. inch — 3 

Net effective pressure — 41 

Net effective indicated H.P. . — 10.5 

Brake or actual H. P — 8.4 

Engine friction H. P — 2.1 

Mechanical efficiency per cent — 80 

Oil used per hour (total lb.) — 8.82 

per I.H.P. lb — 0.84 

" " " " per B.H.P. lb......— 1.05 

Cooling water through jacket, lb. per min. — 22.5 

Cooling water rise in temp. 57 to 113 

Fahr - 56° 

The Mietz & Weiss Engine. 

This engine is illustrated in Fig. 75. It works not, 
as some other engines described herein, on the Beau 
de Rochas cycle, but on the two-cycle princi- 
ple — that is, an explosion is obtained in the cyl- 
inder at each revolution of the crank-shaft. As the 
oil-tank is above the cylinder, fuel is supplied to the 
smaller engines partly by gravitation — the quantity in- 

*"Gas and Petroleum Engines," by Prof. Wm. Robin- 
son, pp. 688. 




Fig. 75a. 




Fig. 75 



(To face p. 178.) 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 



179 



jected, however, into the cylinder being regulated by 
small oil supply pump. Where required, the oil tank 
can be placed below the level of the engine. A sec- 
tional view of the horizontal engine is shown at Fig. 
75a. The Mietz & Weiss marine engine is also 
shown at Fig. J$c, made vertical of single or multi- 
cylinder type. It operates on a similar plan of opera- 
tion to the horizontal engine, a special feature of the 
multi-cylinder type being the use of one oil pump for 
the injection of the fuel into one or more cylinders. 



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15 20_25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95100 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 
HORSE-POWERS 

Fig. 716. 

This vertical marine type engine is made in sizes up 
to 200 H. P., and is also used for industrial purposes 
direct-connected to electric generators and for general 
power purposes. The fuel is injected into the cylinder 
of the Mietz & Weiss engines with some steam. The 
steam being generated in the water jackets surround- 
ing the cylinder, which are allowed to rise to a tem- 
perature necessary for generating the steam. The oil 
is vaporized in a hot chamber shown in the accom- 
panying sectional illustrations placed at the back of 
the cylinder, which is heated for a few minutes in 
starting by independent lamp. Afterwards the heat 



l80 OIL ENGINES. 

created by constant combustion maintain the igniter 
at proper temperature automatically. 

The governor of the improved Mietz & Weiss en- 
gine is of the centrifugal type, and acts through a vari- 
able stroke on the kerosene pump, graduating 
the charge for varying loads. The governor weight 
is arranged near the shaft at the hub of the fly-wheel, 
to which it is pivoted at one end, the other end being 
secured to an adjustable spring, the tension of which 
determines the speed. The eccentric is free to slide at 
right angles to the shaft, and, being pivoted to the ex- 
treme end of the governor weight, receives a slight 
turning movement ahead from no load to full load. 
The regulation with this governor is extremely close 
in direct electric lighting service, where many of these 
engines are in use, either belted or direct-coupled to 
generators. 

The deficiency of pressure in the crank-chamber is 
used to raise the lubricating oil from an oil well placed 
below the sight feed oilers which supply oil to the cyl- 
inder and crank-chamber. The crank bearings are lu- 
bricated by means of ring oilers. These engines are 
now made in various sizes from i — 200 HP, being 
direct-connected to dynamos, as shown in Fig. 58a. 
They are also direct-connected to centrifugal pumps, 
hoists as well as air-compressors. The compression 
of the air is generated in the crank-chamber and the 
air is drawn into the cylinder at a slight pressure dur- 
ing each outstroke of the piston. The exhaust open- 
ing is automatically uncovered by the piston, the ex- 
haust passage being made in the cylinder wall. As the 




Fig. 75c. 



(To face p. 180.) 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. l8l 

piston travels toward the end of the stroke, this passage 
is uncovered, and the products of combustion 
are free to pass to the exhaust-pipe, while the 




Indicator diagram taken from the Mietz & Weiss Engine: 
diameter of cylinder, 12" ; stroke, 12" ; revolutions per 
minute, 300; scale, 100; B. H. P., 20. 

piston travels to the end of the stroke and the first part 
of the return stroke until the port is again covered, 
when the compression period commences for the next 
explosion. Consequently no valves are necessary, the 
air inlet to the cylinder being controlled by the action 
of the piston only, which simplifies the action of the 
engine. 



l82 OIL ENGINES. 



Hornsby-Akroyd Oil Engine. 

Fig. 76 shows this engine as made by the De La 
Vergne Machine Company, of New York. It is also 
made by the patentees at Grantham, England, and in 
France and Germany. 

The Hornsby-Ackroyd engine is made in sizes of i-J 
to 500 H. P., all sizes being made of the horizontal 
type. This engine as made by the English makers is 
shown at Fig. JJ. The fuel oil-tank is placed in the 
base of the engine and the fuel is delivered to the va- 
porizer by the small pump actuated from the cam- 
shaft by the lever which also actuates the air-inlet 
valve. The oil supply is raised to the vaporizer valve- 
box in regular quantities, but the oil is only allowed to 
enter the vaporizer to the required amount, the re- 
mainder of the oil flowing back to the tank through 
the by-pass valve which is regulated by the governor. 
Thus, if the speed of the fly-wheel exceeds the normal 
number of revolutions for which the engine is set, the 
governor mechanism opens the by-pass oil-valve, allow- 
ing part of the oil to flow back to the oil-tank, and ac- 
cordingly reduces the charge entering the vaporizer, 
and consequently the mean pressure for one or more 
explosions is reduced in the cylinder. The governor is 
of the Porter type, actuated by gearing from the cam- 
shaft. The method of vaporizing and igniting is fully 
described in Chapter I. Both air-inlet and exhaust 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 1 83 

valves are actuated from the cam-shaft, these valves 




Fig. 77a. 



being placed on the side of the engine. The air inlet 
in this type is different from the other engines de- 



1 84 



OIL ENGINES. 



scribed. In this case the air enters not through the va* 
porizer, but by means of separate valve-chamber. 




Diagram taken from Hornsby-Akroyd Engine : M. E. P., 48 
lbs. ; compression pressure, 50 lbs. ; maximum pressure, 
160 lbs. ; revolutions per minute, 185 ; cylinder, 18.5" 
diameter; 24" stroke; full load. 




Diagram taken from Hornsby-Akroyd Engine: Diameter of 
cylinder, 11"; stroke, 15"; M. E. P.,. 49.5 lbs.; compression 
pressure, 60 lbs.; revolutions per minute, 230; consump- 
tion of oil W. W., 150 F. 0.8 lbs. per B. H. P. per hour. 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 1 85 

A two-cycle vertical high speed engine is shown at 
Fig. yya, made and patented by the De La Vergne Ala- 
chine Company. This engine operates on the two- 
cycle plan, as explained on page 17. 

The features peculiar to this engine are the vaporizer, 
which is illustrated Fig. yya at V, and the sprayer, 
which is shown at N. This sprayer is also shown at 
Fig. ya, and described on page 13. As will be seen 
from Fig. yya, the vaporizer is made of a conical shape 
and the oil is injected directly into it. 

The compression of the air before explosion takes 
place in the crank-case and enters the cylinder at pass- 
age A. There being no contracted opening to the va- 
porizer, and as a compression pressure of 100 lbs. is 
used, the clearance in the combustion space is very 
small and all the air entering the cylinder is forced 
into the vaporizer, where it freely mingles with the fuel. 
A baffle plate placed on the piston deflects the air into 
the vaporizer and a slight scavenging effect is pro- 
duced, which forces the exhaust gases from the com- 
bustion chamber. The exhaust opening is shown at 
E. 

The engine runs at approximately 500 R. P. M. and 
is specially adapted for direct connection to electric 
generators. 

The governor is shown in detail at Fig. 2$, and is 
of the centrifugal type placed in the fly-wheel, and is 
arranged to operate directly on the oil supply pump. 
The indicator cards are shown at Fig. yyb, that at A 
being from the power cylinder at fuel load, and that at 
B taken from the crank chamber. 



1 86 



OIL ENGINES. 



This engine is made in sizes up to 25 H. P. of the 
twin cylinder type. The bearings of the larger sizes 
are water- jacketed to insure maintenance of low tem- 
perature and allow free lubrication. Oiling of all bear- 
ings is effected by means of a force feed oil pump. 




Atm l-Uf- 




Fig. 77b. 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 



187 



The vertical type Hornsby-Akroyd engine, which 
was previously built, is also shown here in sec- 
tion (Figs. 78 and 79). The cam-shaft is operated 




1 88 



OIL ENGINES. 



by a gearing from the crank-shaft in the regular way, 
the valves being operated by levers and rods. As will 
be seen from the illustration, the cylinders are built 
separately, being water- jacketed and mounted on a 




Fig. 79. 

cast-iron frame of the enclosed type containing the 
crank-shaft. Lubrication is effected from the splash- 
ing of the crank in a bath of oil. The 15 H. P. engine 
has cylinders 8J" diameter by 9" stroke. The 
governing is effected by regulating the length of the 
stroke of the oil pump; no adjustment of the pump is 
therefore necessary. The governor is of the Rites pat- 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 



189 



ent type, and a regulation of less than 2 per cent is 
claimed by the makers of this engine, with a variation 
of the load within the engine's limits. 



The Rites Governor. 
An illustration of the Rites governor is shown at 
Fig. 80. It will be seen that it is placed in the fly- 



TO REGULATING 
LEVER 




Fig. 80. 



wheel in the usual way with this type of governor. 
The Rites governor has now become so widely known 
that only a short description is necessary. Briefly, it 
consists of but a single weight, distributed on opposite 
sides of the shaft with a spring connection to balance 
centrifugal force. In its application to the oil or gas 



190 OIL ENGINES. 

engine an eccentric cast in one piece with the weight 
structure is provided. The movement (while in op- 
eration) of the governor weight consequent upon any 
change in speed of the crank-shaft is transmitted to 
the regulating device by means of the eccentric attached 
to the governor weight, on which are fitted eccentric 
straps and rod. The other end of this eccentric rod is 
attached to a lever, which reciprocates the shaft on 
which is placed the eccentric fulcrum controlling the 
stroke of the plunger of the oil-supply pump or the 
opening of the gas valve. 

The operation is as follows : If the speed of the 
crank-shaft is increased by a fraction beyond the re- 
quired maximum speed, the momentum of the weight 
overcomes the strength of the spring, thus changing 
the throw of the eccentrics, which in turn reduces the 
length of the oil-pump stroke. 

Among the many claims for the Rites governor are 
the following: It allows of a large range of adjust- 
ment. It is remarkably quick in action, and the distri- 
bution of the governor weights on each side of the 
weight-pin and also on each side of the crank- 
shaft allows the governor strength to be greatly 
increased without necessarily increasing the centrifu- 
gal element correspondingly, and utilizes the inertia 
action of the governor most effectively for extreme 
changes of load. There is only one bearing requiring 
lubrication — namely, that of the fulcrum pin. No dash- 
pot is required, and only a small brake or drag is used 
to steady the movement of the governor weight. 

The speed of the engine is altered by the adjustment 




& 



I £ 

o 
o 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. I9I 

of the spiral spring controlling the weights. Speed is 
increased by moving the pin holding spring outwards 
from the fulcrum pin and at the same time correspond- 
ingly increasing the tension of the spring, to preserve 
a constant proportional initial tension corresponding 
to the change of leverage of the spring. 

To decrease speed, reverse the above operation, or, if 
desired, add to the weight, thus increasing its centrifu- 
gal force. 

To remedy racing, move the spring connection to the 
governor weight in its slot away from the weight-pin, 
leaving the tension of the spring unchanged. If it is 
required to regulate closer, reverse this movement of 
the pin in its slot ; that is, tozvards the weight-pin. 



M.E.P.^QT LB. 
COMP.=95 
MAX. — 330 




Fig. Sob. 

Johnston Oil Engine. — The Johnston oil engine is 
shown in Fig. 8oa. It is made in various sizes up 
to 200 H. P. of the vertical type with one or more 
cylinders. It operates on the four-cycle principle, the 
air inlet and exhaust valves being actuated from a 
cam-shaft placed outside the crank casing operated by 
gearing from the crank-shaft in the usual way. 



IC)2 OIL ENGINES. 

The chief feature of this engine is the method of ig- 
nition, which is effected by means of a hot surface, being 
a hot plate on the end of the piston, which is maintained 
at the proper temperature by the heat of combustion, 
and is insulated from the piston itself. (See Fig. 9.) 

As will be seen from the indicator card at Fig. Sob, 
the compression pressure is approximately 100 lbs. per 
square inch, and the maximum pressure 300 lbs. 

The injection of the fuel takes place after compres- 
sion is completed, that is, at the end of the inward 
stroke. 

A small air compressor attached to the crank-shaft 
furnishes the air necessary for spraying the fuel into 
the cylinder. The same compressor also furnishes the 
compressed air necessary for starting the engine. In 
starting, a metal thimble placed in the combustion cham- 
ber is heated by an external torch. An electric ignitor 
is used in some cases instead of the heated thimble 
for starting. The makers of this engine claim a fuel 
consumption of three-fifths of a pound of fuel or crude 
oil per actual B. H. P. per hour. 

The Britannia Co/s Oil Engine. 

An engine fully described in the Engineer* (Lon- 
don), made by the Britannia Co., of Colchester, Eng- 
land, is shown at Figs. 81, 82 and 83. It will be seen 
from the illustrations that it is of simple design. The 
vaporizer is a modification of the type as shown at 
Fig. 2 and referred to on page 8. The oil is stored 
in the base of the engine and is raised to the vaporizer 
by the suction of the piston. Consequently no oil 
pump is required. The air inlet valve C is automatic, 

*See Engineer and Engineering, London, of June 19, 1903. 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 



193 



and is placed on the side of the engine above the ex- 
haust valve D. The governor is of the centrifugal type 
and operates on the "hit-and-miss" principle, and 
is arranged to control the vapor inlet valve. On 
starting the engine the vaporizer is heated by external 
lamp for a few minutes and a small amount of fuel is 
injected into the vaporizer by means of the filling cup, 
marked E. The vaporizer consists of a flat cast-iron 
box, marked A, provided with baffle plates, which cause 
the oil or vapor to travel backwards and forwards 





Fig. 82. 



Fig. 83. 



through passages before entering the cylinder. The 
ignition is caused by means of tube B. 

In operation the oil is raised to the vaporizer from 
the tank by the vacuum in the cylinder, caused by the 
outstroke of the piston. The cylinder communicates with 
the vaporizer through the vapor inlet valve only. Air 
enters both through the main air inlet valve C, Fig. 81, 
and a passage communicating with the vaporizer. The 
air entering can be throttled so that proportions 
of air entering by alternative ways can be regulated 



IQ4 0IL ENGINES. 

as required. The oil supply enters by the passage 
closed by means of sleeve e, which forms also a valve 
as shown in Fig. 83. When the sleeve moves, due to 
the vacuum in the cylinder, by piston movement, oil is 
drawn (through holes in the sleeve) into the vaporizer. 
The amount of oil entering depends on the amount of 
air allowed to enter the cylinder through the vaporizer. 
When, due to the action of the governor, the vapor 
valve remains closed, no communication is made with 
the cylinder and no oil enters the vaporizer. Two 
passages between the vaporizer valve and the cylinder 
are made, in one of which is the igniter-plug, which is 
simply a piece of steel having projecting internal ribs 
which absorb the heat from explosion, becoming red- 
hot in operation. No exhaust gases pass through the 
igniter, and on light loads gases only enter the igniter 
preceding an explosion. The temperature of igniter 
and vaporizer is easily maintained, and no stoppage 
due to the cooling of the vaporizer can occur. 

American Oil Engine Co.'s Engine. 

A vertical type oil engine made by the American 
Oil Engine Co., suitable for industrial and marine pur- 
poses, is shown in the single and twin-cylinder type 
at Fig. 84 and in section at Fig. 85. It is of the two- 
cycle type, the compression of the air previous to 
ignition being effected in the crank chamber, from 
whence it passes by a passage and port uncovered by 
the piston as it moves forward, to the cylinder. The 
fuel is supplied by oil pump operated by cam and 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. I95 

placed close to the sprayer shown in Fig. 85. The 
governing is effected by means of a sliding cam which 





Fig. 84. 

actuates the oil supply pump and shortens or lengthens 
the stroke of the pump in accordance with the load. 



196 



OIL ENGINES. 



The ignition of the charge is caused by the heat of a 
steel disc on to which the fuel is sprayed. Starting is 
effected either with an electric igniter or by means of 



ELECTRIC IGNITOR 
FOR STARTING 
WITH GASOLINE 



STEEL DISC 
IGNITOR 



OIL PUMP 

' E V / 

i OIL SUPPLY » 




Fig. 85. 



tube heated externally by kerosene torch. Gasoline or 
alcohol is used instead of kerosene for starting when 
the electric igniter is operated. A multiple force feed 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. 197 

oil pump furnishes lubrication to the cylinder and all 
bearings. This engine is made in various sizes from 
1 J H. P. upwards. 



The Barker Engine. 

A type of engine which in recent years has received 
some attention from inventors is that in which the cyl- 
inders revolve around a fixed crank-pin or cam. For 
situations where space is limited and where vibration 
should be eliminated and weight per horse power re- 




Fig. 86. 

duced to a minimum, the advantages of this type of 
engine are apparent. 

Fig. 86 shows the engine complete. It will be noted 
that there is no fly-wheel, the cylinders themselves 



198 



OIL ENGINES. 



revolving around the centre bearing and furnishing the 
necessary momentum. The engine works on the 
''Otto," or four-cycle; that is, each cycle of operation 
in each cylinder consists of four strokes ; thus a four- 
cylinder engine has four impulses each revolution. This 
is effected by the use of the cam motion shown in Fig. 




Fig. 87. 



Fig. 88. 



87, instead of the ordinary crank. This mechanism is 
equivalent to a double-throw crank. 

Fig. 88 shows the four pistons in position, the cyl- 
inders having been removed. 

The air and vapor inlet to the cylinders and the 
exhaust outlet are effected through the hollow spin- 
dle on which the cylinders revolve, radial ports or pas- 
sage-ways being made in the spindle, which are un- 
covered by recesses in the cylinders, as these recesses 
coincide with the ports of the cylinder at each revolu- 
tion. 

The ignition is caused by electric igniter of the" jump- 
spark type. The timing of the ignition is obtained by 



VARIOUS ENGINES DESCRIBED. I99 

a revolving contact breaker. When using gasoline, 
a carburetor of the ordinary float type is attached. 
When kerosene is used as fuel, a vaporizer somewhat 
similar to that shown at Fig. 3 is used, the heat from 
the exhaust gases being suflicient to maintain the re- 
quired temperature for vaporization. The oil is fed 
by gravity and the vapor is drawn into the cylinder by 
the piston displacement in the usual way. The power 
is taken off from a pulley attached to the sides of the 
cylinder. 

A motor of this type of one actual horse-power 
weighs about 15 lbs.; a 3 H. P. weighs approximately 
35 pounds. A speed of about 800 R. P. M. is obtained, 
which speed is varied by the lead given to the igniter. 
When running at a high speed the engine can be held 
in the hands without vibration. 



CHAPTER XI. 

PORTABLE ENGINES. 

Portable type oil engines, made by nearly all mak- 
ers of fixed horizontal engines, are used for 
various purposes. Such engines combined with air 
compressors are very useful for operating pneumatic 
tools used in structural iron work, repairs and similar 
work where compressed air is required in different 
locations for short periods of time. For portable elec- 
tric-lighting purposes the oil engine (Fig. 89) is well 
adapted. Electric lighting outfits of this kind have 
been found useful for operating search-lights for mili- 
tary purposes and for supplying current for electric 
lighting for contractors, etc., where illumination of a 
portable nature is required for a short period only. 
The portable oil engine is also largely used for farm 
work, such as operating threshing machines, etc. 

In all cases these engines are required to be frequent- 
ly removed from place to place, and therefore 
must be as light as possible in design, but must be of 
such substantial construction that they can be trans- 
ported from place to place over rough, uneven roads, 
and all provision for operation in the open air must be 
made. In Europe the portable engine is generally con- 
structed somewhat differently to the ordinary fixed 



PORTABLE ENGINES. 20I 



engine. The heavy cast-iron bed-plate used in fixed 
engines is replaced with light steel construction, which 
considerably reduces the weight. This type of con- 
struction is shown in Fig. 89, and while it is somewhat 
more expensive than those portable engines composed 
of the fixed engine without base-plate bolted to steel 
or wooden truck, the advantage of lightness is gained 
as well as facility in transportation. 

In the United States the portable engines are more 
generally composed of the standard fixed engine 
placed on steel or timber truck. This outfit is cheaper 
in cost than that of the special construction above men- 
tioned. 

The portable engine is often required to operate in 
localities where running water is not available, and 
therefore it must be self-contained as regards the cool- 
ing of the cylinder. An important feature of this out- 
fit is, therefore, the cooling-water apparatus. In order 
that only a small amount of water may be used, dif- 
ferent devices have been constructed for rapidly cool- 
ing a small amount of water. Such device in the 
Hornsby-Akroyd consists of a gradirwork placed in- 
side the circular chamber, seen in Fig. 89, placed in 
the front of the engine. The water is circulated around 
the cylinder of the engine by a small recip- 
rocating pump operated from the cam-shaft, and after 
passing through the cylinder and taking up the heat 
is delivered to the upper part of this chamber and flows 
down a wooden gradirwork. A draft of air is at the 
same time induced by the exhaust emitted above, which 



202 



OIL ENGINES. 



rapidly cools the water as it trickles down the 
slats of the gradirwork. For a 20 H. P. engine only 
about 30 to 40 gallons of water are required. 

Another device for cooling the water is that com- 
posed of trays over which the water flows while a 




Fig. 90. 



draft of air is induced in the same way as above men- 
tioned. 

An engine equipped with this cooling device is 
shown in Fig. 90, as made by Grossley Bros., Man- 
chester, England. 

Another type of portable engine is that shown in 
Fig. 91, consisting of the Mietz & Weiss engine. This 



1'ORTABLE ENGINES. 



203 



is the standard fixed engine placed on a truck, the cool- 
ing water being supplied from a tank in front of the 
engine. 

As the internal combustion engine cannot be bal- 
anced as effectually as the steam engine, greater vibra- 
tion of the engine has to be overcome in holding it in 




place. An important feature of the portable engine, 
therefore, is the chocking device which is required to 
hold it rigidly in position when in operation. In some 
engines simply a wooden chock is used, placed each 
side of the wheel and drawn together, holdingthe wheels 
from moving. A very effective device is that composed 
of four adjustable struts, each having turnbuckle fitting 



204 



OIL ENGINES. 



into a flat timber plank placed on the ground length- 
wise under the engine and protruding from each end. 
When it is desired to hold the engine in position, 




the struts, placed at each end of truck, are length- 
ened by means of the turnbuckle, thus taking the 




8, 



PORTABLE ENGINES. 20$ 

weight off the wheels. By this means the engine is 
held as rigidly as when on a concrete foundation, and 
without movement. When it is required to remove the 
engine the struts are shortened by simply unscrewing 
until the weight is taken up by the wheels. The wear 
on the wheels due to the continuous vibration of the 
engine is thus avoided, and the wheels can consequent- 
ly be lighter in construction. 

A portable air-compressing outfit is shown in Fig. 
92. As will be seen from the illustration, it 
is composed of the oil engine, which operates the air- 
compressor by a gearing, the air receiver being placed 
beneath the frame of the truck, while the cooling-water 
device is placed lengthwise with the air compressor. 

An oil traction engine is shown at Figure 92a, in 
which the ordinary frame and truck of the steam trac- 
tion engine is used, the boiler being replaced by an 
oil engine. 

The engine shown in the illustration has two cylin- 
ders placed at an angle to each other, the connecting 
rods operating on one crank-pin, the power from the 
crank-shaft being transmitted by gearing to the road- 
wheels. The cooling of the water is effected somewhat 
similarly as with the portable engine. This type 
of engine, made by Messrs. R. Hornsby & Sons, 
Grantham, England, after very severe tests recently 
received a first prize of £1,000 from the British War 
Department. 



CHAPTER XII. 
LARGE-SIZED ENGINES. 

The higher thermal efficiency of the gas engine as 
compared with that of the steam engine and its adap- 
tability to use the poorer and cheaply produced gases 
made in the producer plant, the Mond gas plant, as well 
as the gases given off from blast furnaces, etc., has re- 
sulted in its development and manufacture in units as 
high as 5000 H. P. 

The "oil gas" producer, an apparatus for furnishing 
gas produced from vegetable and mineral oils, is also 
used in connection with the gas engine ; and also, as 
described hereafter, the apparatus developed by C. C. 
Moore & Co., of San Francisco, for generating 
gas from crude oil, which gases are furnished to the 
gas engine. Until recently the oil engine self-con- 
tained, that is, requiring no outside gas-making appa- 
ratus, of 100 H. P. was probably the largest unit made. 
The oil engine up to 500 H. P. is now, however, being 
manufactured. 

The production of great quantities of petroleum in 
Texas and California chiefly useful for fuel purposes 
only, and which can be procured at a low price as com- 
pared with illuminating oils, has enabled the oil engine 
in many locations to compete in cost of installation and 



LARGE-SIZED ENGINES. 20J 

operation with gas engines using producer and other 
cheap gas. 

With the smaller size oil engines simplicity of con- 
struction is probably the most important feature, as 
it must be adapted for successful operation in the hands 
of unskilled attendants and be free from all delicate 
mechanisms which may require skilled attention. With 
the larger size engines, which have a greater earning 
capacity and which allow of the expense of a skilled 
attendant, simplicity of construction is not so important 
a feature. Mechanisms which may frequently 
give trouble in the smaller engines when in the 
hands of unskilled and inexperienced attendants may 
in the hands of the engineer attending to the larger 
engines give continuous satisfaction. 

The tendency in design of the larger size gas en- 
gines is resorting to the two-cycle method of operation. 
Where the four-cycle method is adhered to two or 
more cylinders are employed. The four-cycle single- 
cylinder engine, as already explained in Chapter I., 
obtains an impulse once in two revolutions, and 
consequently during the three idle strokes of the piston 
the power and speed must be maintained by the mo- 
mentum of the fly-wheels, necessarily enormous in an 
engine of ioo H. P. or over for the power obtained, 
in comparison with the fly-wheel of a steam engine of 
the same capacity. With the two-cycle engine, in 
which an impulse is obtained each revolution of the 
crank-shaft, double the power is developed as compared 
with the four-cycle engine of the same size. The me- 
chanical efficiency is increased, owing to the reduced 



208 OIL ENGINES. 

weight of the fly-wheels, and the weight and cost of the 
engine per H. P. is curtailed. 

The difficulty of procuring proper combustion in the 
two-cycle oil engine, more essential where crude oil is 
used than where gas or gasoline is the fuel, is not yet 
entirely overcome. 

It has been previously stated that the larger size oil 
engines, to compete with the gas engine in cost of fuel, 
can do so only when a cheap grade of oil is used as 
fuel. To use such fuel, it is imperative that proper 
combustion takes place in the cylinder. 

It is of interest to compare the relative cost of oper- 
ation of the steam engine, the gas engine and the oil 
engine of, say, 50, 100 and 200 H. P. As the cost of 
fuel varies in different localities according to the cost of 
transportation, etc., this cannot be done to suit all cases. 
The following table, however, shows the relative cost 
of installing and operating a steam, gas and oil engine 
plant of 50 to 200 H. P. The cost of the plant includes 
cost of land, building of engine and boiler house, foun- 
dations, smoke-stack, etc., and all auxiliary apparatus. 
The cost of producer plant, and the cost of oil storage 
tanks and cost of apparatus for handling fuel is also in- 
cluded. It will be noted that the cost of water supply 
has in each instance been neglected. This is done be- 
cause the amount of water required would be approx- 
imately the same with each type ; possibly a saving in 
favor of the oil and gas engine would in many instal- 
lations be effected. The figures must be modified to 
suit the actual cost of fuel in a locality differing from 
those given. The saving favorable to the gas-engine 





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210 



OIL ENGINES. 



installation due to the recovery of by-products which 
is effected with the Mond gas plant is neglected, and 
should be taken account of where this system can be 




used. The steam turbine, it will be noted, is not men- 
tioned in this classification, the steam engine consid- 
ered being the reciprocating type. 



LARGE-SIZED ENGINES. 211 

The Mietz & Weiss two-cycle oil engine has al- 
ready been described. An engine of this type of 60 
H. P. is shown at Fig. 93. It will be seen that it con- 
sists of two smaller engines coupled together and 
placed on one base-plate. Each engine is self-contained 
and, if necessary, can be operated alone by simply un- 
coupling the connecting-rod, etc. 

The Hornsby-Akroyd engine of 125 H. P. is shown 
in Fig. 94. This engine operates on the four-cycle sys- 
tem. Its proportions are necessarily large as com- 
pared with the two-cycle type, and, owing to the three 
idle strokes present when the Otto cycle is used, the 
fly-wheels must be very heavy to obtain even running. 
The advantage, however, is gained of obtaining a good 
combustion, which is not always the case with the two- 
cycle engine, and consequently crude oil can be satis- 
factorily consumed in this engine. The deposit of 
carbon when using crude oil is abstracted from the 
vaporizer through the hole in the back of that chamber 
shown in the illustration, and which is covered by a 
flange. These engines are now made up to 500 H. P. 
by R. Hornsby & Sons, Grantham, England. 

A sectional view of the cylinder is shown at Fig. '95, 
in which will be noted the water- jacketed piston and 
the method of supplying the water to it. In other re- 
spects this engine operates in a similar method to the 
smaller sizes already described. They are started by 
compressed air supplied from a reservoir, the air en- 
tering the cylinder by means of valves and valve-box 
connected to the reservoir already described on page 
105. In the larger engines water- jacketing of the pis- 



212 OIL ENGINES. 

ton is required in addition to the water- jacketing of 
the -cylinder to preserve the proper temperature neces- 
sary for lubrication, and to prevent undue expansion 
of the piston being exposed to the greater volume of 
gases in the cylinder. The water is introduced by a 
sliding tube to the piston, with which it reciprocates. 



The Diesel Engine. 

The Diesel engines are built by the American Diesel 
Engine Co., at Providence, R. I. They are also built 
by several manufacturers in Europe, both in Great 
Britain and Germany. The Diesel engine, as at 
present made in the U. S. A., is shown at Fig. 96. The 
engine here described is the type built by the makers 
under American and Canadian patents. 

The chief characteristic of the Diesel engine is the 
high thermal efficiency obtained and the consequent 
low consumption of fuel. The high thermal efficiency, 
which it is claimed is 38%, is due to the high com- 
pression of the air in the cylinder, to the exceedingly 
small clearance in the cylinder, which is approximately 
7% only of the total cylinder volume, and to the slow 
combustion of the fuel which is effected by the method 
of injecting the fuel peculiar to the Diesel engine. 

As will be seen from the accompanying illustrations, 
this engine is of the vertical type and is of very 
substantial construction. The cylinder walls, cylinder 
head and valve chambers are water-jacketed. The en- 
closed crank-chamber is advantageously made readily 




^e 



LARGE-SIZED ENGINES. 



213 



accessible by means of removable plates on either side 
of it. 

Fig. 97 shows in plan and partly in section the Diesel 
engine of the three-cylinder type. It is also made 
with single and double cylinder. 




Fig. 96. 



214 



OIL ENGINES. 




A sectional end view is shown at Fig. 98. The 
crank-shaft, or main bearings, are adjustable by means 




Fig. 98. 



(To face p. 214.) 



LARGE-SIZED ENGINES. 215 

of wedges and screws, as shown. The piston is made 
as long as possible, in order to give a maximum bear- 
ing surface, and is fitted with steel snap-rings. The 
connecting-rods are of the marine type, with adjus- 
table bearings at both ends. The valve motions are 
operated from the cam-shaft inside the enclosed frame, 
which is actuated by gearing from the crank-shaft. 
The engine operates on the "Otto," or four-cycle, prin- 
ciple. The air supply for supporting combustion is 
drawn into the cylinders through the air inlet valves 
placed in the housings to one side of the top of the 
cylinder head. (See Fig. 99.) The fuel to the cylinders 
is supplied by a separate oil pump for each cylinder. 
The oil pump is operated from a shaft geared to the 
cam-shaft. The method of operation is as follows : 
The engine is first started by means of compressed 
air, which is supplied from an auxiliary air receiver 
suitably connected to the cylinder by means of a start- 
ing valve operated by a starting cam, thrown into ac- 
tion by hand, before starting. By this means com- 
pressed air is admitted to the cylinder and the piston 
is moved forward for one or two revolutions. Simul- 
taneously compression of the air in the other cylinders 
takes place, which is sufficient to ignite the charge of 
oil in them. As soon as the ignitions take place the 
starting cam is automatically thrown out of action, the 
exhaust cam being simultaneously thrown into 
action. The admission valve for fuel and air under 
pressure is shown in Fig. 99. As will be seen, the 
valve spindle is surrounded by a series of brass wash- 
ers perforated with small holes, being parallel to the 



2l6 



OIL ENGINES. 



spindle. The fuel before entering the cylinder occu- 
pies the cavities in and between these washers as it is 
delivered from the fuel pump. Compressed air is in- 
troduced behind the oil inlet and at the opening of the 




Fig. 99. 



admission valve the oil is sprayed into the cylinder. The 
fuel enters the cylinder only after the compression 
stroke is completed and when the piston is beginning 



LARGE-SIZED ENGINES. 217 

to descend. The compression in the cylinder caused 
by the previous up-stroke of the piston reaches a 
pressure of 450 to 525 lbs. per square inch ; resulting 
temperature approaches 1000 Fahr., which is more 
than sufficient to ignite the oil vapor. The fuel valve 
remains open about one-tenth of the period of the ex- 
pansion stroke. The amount of fuel entering depends 
upon the action of the governor. Air in excess of that 
required to burn the fuel is introduced into the cylin- 
der, and accordingly perfect combustion takes place. 
The speed of the engine is controlled by means of the 
governor acting on the by-pass valves (one for each 
fuel pump). The by-pass oil valves are opened by 
arms pivoted on a shaft raised or lowered by the gov- 
ernor, and operate as follows : If only a small amount 
of fuel is required in the cylinder to overcome the load, 
the governor holds the by-pass valve open for a length- 
ened period and a greater amount of the oil is allowed to 
return to the suction pipe, while, if the load is greater, 
and consequently more fuel is required in the cylinder 
to overcome it, the by-pass valves open for a relatively 
shorter period and then less oil returns to the suction 
pipe, a greater amount of fuel passing to the cylinder. 
By this method of governing a very close regulation 
of speed is effected. 

Indicator card from this engine is shown at Fig. 
100. 

The Diesel engine has created great interest in 
engineering circles the world over, and many tests 
have been made of it. Professor Denton, of the 
Stevens Institute, Hoboken, N. J., in 1898 conducted 



2l8 OIL ENGINES. 

a series of tests on this engine, and according to his re- 
port of those tests the consumption of fuel was 0.534 
lbs. per B. H. P. per hour at full load, and at less than 
half load 0.72 lbs. per B. H. P. per hour. This is 

M£.J?9?MJ33 -IJP ?*.7 



Fig. 100. 

equivalent to a thermal efficiency (on the I. H. P.) of 
37.7 per cent. 

The following is the heat-balance table as shown 
by Professor Denton: 

PER CENT. 

Heat of combustion accounted for by indicated 

power 37.2 

Removed by jacket 35.4 

Remainder 27.4 

Total heat of combustion 100.0 

Another type of the Diesel engine, that made by the 
manufacturers in Sweden, is shown at Fig. 101. 

The following tests were made by Prof. Meyer in 
1900 on a German type 30 H. P. engine. The 



LARGE-SIZED ENGINES. 



219 



cylinder 11.8" diam., 18. 1" stroke, air-pump cylinder 
1.9" diam., 3.1" stroke. Air was taken from motor 
cylinder at a pressure of 20 atmospheres and com- 




*M 



pressed to 45 or 60 atmospheres. Negative work in 
the motor cylinder was equivalent to 5.66 H. P. at 181. 



220 



OIL ENGINES. 



R. P. M. The air pump was not indicated, consequently 
the effective power is not given. The mean indicated 
pressure at normal load was approximately 90 lbs. per 
square inch. The exhaust gases were invisible. Two 
kinds of fuel were used, American petroleum, specific 
gravity 0.79, having 18,540 B. T. U. per lb., and 
Tegern See (Bavaria) crude oil, specific gravity 
0.789.* 

Table VIII. — Results op Trials op a Diesel Oil Engine 
(Meyer), 1900. 





American Petroleum. 


Raw Tegern See Oil. 


Load on Brake. 


Full 
Load. 


Nor- 
mal. 


Load. 


Half 
Load. 


Nor- 
mal. 


Load. 


Half 
Load. 


Revs, per minute .... 

Brake (or actual) 
H. P., metric. 

Indicated H. P. (mo- 
tor cyl.) 


177.4 

39-45 

48.2 
82 

0.48 

28 


181.I 

30.17 

39-52 
76 

0-45 

30 


184.O 
23.81 

33- 10 

72 

0.48 

28 


183.3 
15-26 

25.02 
6l 

0.57 

24 


181. 2 

30.18 

40.96 
73 

0.47 
29.8 


181. 8 
23-5 

33-o 
7i 

0.49 


185.O 

15-4 

26.4 

58 

0.57 


Mech. efficiency 

Oil used per B. H. P., 
per hour lbs. 

Percentage of heat ) 
of oil as useful j- 
work ) 



Crude Oil Vaporizer. 

On the Pacific Coast crude oil is now being largely 
used for fuel. In many instances this fuel is used, be- 
ing vaporized or gasified in a separate apparatus and 
is then consumed in the ordinary gas engine. This 

*"Gas and Petroleum Engines." By Prof. Wm. Robinson. 
Second edition. Page 777. 



LARGE-SIZED ENGINES. 221 

apparatus is separate from the engine, the oil being 
entirely gasified before it reaches the engine cylinder. 
Such vaporizing apparatus or retorts are made by vari- 
ous manufacturers, but in general principle they 
are similar. The heat of the exhaust gases from the 
engine is utilized to heat the retort into which the oil 
is introduced, where it is gasified. 

Mr. Frank H. Bates has drawn attention to these 
various retorts, which usually consist of a cast-iron 
chamber enclosing an inner chamber, also of cast iron.* 
The fuel to be gasified enters the inner ribbed chamber 
through suitable openings, and the gas is drawn from 
the chamber through a separate connection from the 
inner chamber to the engine cylinder. The exhaust 
gases from the engine are connected to the outer cham- 
ber and pass around, heating the inner chamber to a 
temperature necessary for vaporization. Provision is 
made to draw of! the residue of the crude oil, which 
is not capable of vaporization, and provision is also 
made to cleanse the vaporizing chamber of deposit of 
carbon and other solid matter. 

In the "Economist" retort the inner ribbed chamber, 
or drum, is made to slowly revolve, and, the ribs be- 
ing spirally shaped, the oil is propelled from end to 
end and the heat is then equally distributed around the 
inner chamber. In service where the load is fairly 
constant, and where opportunity to cleanse the retort 
occasionally, is afforded, these retorts have given ex- 
cellent results. For installations, however, such as 

*See Journal of Electricity, Power and Gas, Vol. XIII., 
P- 5- 



222 



OIL ENGINES. 



electric railway service, or where the load varies be- 
tween wide limits and where continuous running is 
imperative, it is stated that difficulty has been experi- 




Fig. 102. 



enced, due to the fluctuating temperature of the retort 
heated by the exhaust gases, which involves improp- 
erly regulated supply of vapor to the cylinder. To 
overcome this difficulty with varying loads, Messrs. 
C. C. Moore & Co. have developed an improved sys- 
tem of using crude oil in connection with gas engines. 




Fig. 103. 

The generator, as made by this company, is shown in 
Figs. 102 and 103, in which are shown a longitudinal 
elevation of the generator, end elevation, and also the 



LARGE-SIZED ENGINES. 22$ 

generator connected up to its drainage chamber for 
the automatic removal of the deposit. It will be noted 
from Fig. 102 that a scraper is arranged which can be 
moved from end to end of the vaporizer by means of 
the hand wheel. This scraper is shown in Fig. 105. 
The oil supply is regulated by means of a thermostatic 
valve, and is automatically maintained at a constant 
level by this means. The method of operation is as 
follows : 

Oil is first fed into the vaporizing chamber 
by means of a valve until the level in both this 
chamber and in the oil feed device is a little above 
the level of the upper drain pipe. A heating device is 
then inserted into the exhaust gas passage, heating the 
vaporizing chamber to about 300 Fahr. The engine 
is started by means of compressed air, and when in 
operation air heavily charged with oil vapor passes 
through the nozzle G, Fig. 102, to the engine cylinder. 
The exhaust gases from the engine afterwards furnish 
the heat necessary to maintain the vaporizer at a proper 
temperature ; these gases pass around the generator, 
and thence by the exhaust pipe to the roof. The tem- 
perature of this chamber is regulated by the thermo- 
static valve, which, when the temperature of the vapor- 
izer rises too high, allows the exhaust gases to be by- 
passed from the vaporizer and pass directly to the 
roof. The thermostatic device consists of an alumi- 
num tube inserted directly into the vapor chamber, 
around which the exhaust gases pass. The aluminum 
tube is closed at its upper end and is attached to a sys- 
tem of levers so arranged as to exaggerate its move- 



224 ' 0IL ENGINES. 

ment, caused by the variation in temperature. Ac- 
cordingly, when the temperature of the vaporizer 
chamber rises above that required, the expansion of the 
aluminum tube is arranged to close a needle valve, 
which allows the pressure of the exhaust gases from 
the engine to lift a larger valve, thus opening a pas- 
sage outside the vaporizer, through which the ex- 
haust passes instead of entering the chamber around 
the vaporizing retort. By this means the tempera- 
ture of the retort is regulated within very close limits. 




Fig. 105. 

The proper level of the liquid fuel to be vaporized 
is regulated by an automatic ball check valve placed 
in the chamber marked I, Fig. 106, through which 
the oil passes to the vaporizer. A relief valve is in- 
serted in the supply pump, so that when the valve to 
the vaporizing chamber is closed the fuel can by this 
means flow back to the tank. The retort is readily 
cleansed by means of the scraper already referred to, 
shown in Fig. 105, which is operated by hand period- 
ically. In the larger size installations made by Messrs. 
C. C. Moore & Co. more extensive equipment 
is provided, in which arrangement is made to utilize 
the heat rejected by the exhaust gases and also 




(To face p. 224.) 



LARGE-SIZED ENGINES. 225 

the heat given off from the water jacket, and in which 
installations the residue of the oil is partly used also. 
In these outfits a combination of oil vapor and water 
gas is formed, two superheaters being added, one of 
which is heated by the exhaust gases, in which part of 
the cooling water issuing from the water jacket is 
turned into steam ; the second superheater is heated by 
the burning of residue oil in connection with com- 
pressed air. In this way, it is stated, steam raised to 
approximately 1600 Fahr. in the chamber C, Fig. 
1 06, is mingled with the oil vapor forming the combi- 
nation of oil vapor and water gas referred to. By the 
use of this apparatus a greater economy is effected and 
a greater part of the heat of the fuel utilized. 

The following is a brief description of the accom- 
panying illustrations, Fig. 106 : 

The three-cylinder Westinghouse gas engine of the 
vertical type is shown at A. The generator by which 
the crude oil is vaporized is shown at B. The super- 
heater (heated by residual oil burners) is marked C. 
The chamber for drainage of residuals is shown at D. 
H is an air-compressor operated by belt from the en- 
gine crank-shaft. / is the automatic oil feed, which 
maintains the proper level of the oil in the generator. 
E, E 1 and E 2 are the air storage tanks maintained 
at a pressure of 160 lbs. per square inch. F is the 
rotary oil pump which raises the fuel from the storage 
tank underground to the vaporizer. The water-cir- 
culating pump which supplies the cooling water to 
the cylinders is shown at G. 

A separate vaporizing attachment for using crude 



226 OIL ENGINES. 

oil of the type already mentioned is shown at Fig. 108. 
The vaporizer is separate from the engine, being at- 
tached to the gas or gasoline engine, where it is re- 
quired to use crude oil as fuel instead of gas or gaso- 
line. The outfit shown is the Fairbanks-Morse gas or 
gasoline engine, which has attached to it the outside 
apparatus for vaporizing the oil, the vaporizer being a 
cast-iron chamber into which the liquid oil is injected. 
This chamber is heated while in operation by the ex- 
haust gases. Before starting it is necessary to use an 
outside lamp, in order that the chamber may become 
heated to the temperature required to vaporize the fuel. 
The oil is mixed with air drawn into the vaporizer and 
becomes vaporized in this chamber, and is drawn there- 
from into the cylinder in the usual way. 

As will be seen from the illustration, the engine 
shown at Fig. 108 is geared directly up to hoisting 
drum. These outfits are very largely used for mining 
and similar purposes, where hoisting engines can be 
readily utilized. 

A new type of oil engine, made in sizes from 85 
H. P. upwards, is shown at Fig. 109. This engine is 
manufactured and patented by the De La Vergne Ma- 
chine Company and is known as their Type FH oil 
engine. It operates on the four-cycle principle, and is 
single acting, of the horizontal type, and is furnished 
in either single or twin cylinder units. The largest 
size which this company has furnished hitherto is 250 
H. P. twin cylinder, but engines of larger size are in 
course of construction. 



LARGE-SIZED ENGINES. 227 

This engine is equipped with a two-stage air com- 
pressor shown in the sectional view at Fig. 109, which is 
operated directly from the crank-shaft by an eccentric. 
The compressed air is used for spraying purposes and 
is injected into the vaporizer and combustion space 
with the fuel, thus insuring complete spraying of the 
fuel as it enters the vaporizer. Briefly stated, the 
method of operation of this engine is as follows : 

At the first stroke of the piston outwards, air is 
drawn into the cylinder through an inlet valve on the 
top of the breech end or valve chamber. On the sec- 
ond or inward stroke of the piston, compression takes 
place. As will be seen from the indicator card at Fig. 
112 the maximum pressure of compression is 260 lbs. 
As the process of compression is completed the fuel 
(fuel or crude oil as heavy as 14 Beaume) is in- 
jected into the vaporizer and mingles with the com- 
pressed air already referred to. 

The spray valve shown in section Fig. Ja is posi- 
tively controlled by an independent cam on the cam- 
shaft. The compressed air furnished by the two-stage 
air compressor is delivered at the sprayer at about 400 
lbs. pressure. Only a small amount of air (about 2% 
of the cylinder volume) is delivered at each injection. 
Immediately the fuel enters the combustion space and 
comes in contact with the air heated by the process 
of compression together with the heated walls of the 
vaporizing chamber ignition takes place, and on the 
third or outward stroke of the piston expansion begins. 
The maximum pressure, as will be seen from the indi- 
cator card, is slightly over 400 lbs. At a point 85% of 



228 



OIL ENGINES. 



the stroke, the exhaust valve is opened, allowing the 
products of combustion to escape. 

The vaporizer of this engine is a rough gun-iron cast- 
ing, somewhat similar to that of Type 2 described on 
page 8, but without contracted opening. The oil pump 
is operated from the cam-shaft and has the length of its 
stroke varied by the governor in accordance with the 
load requirements. 



lobo Fflcnw 


O 


</* 


>i 


% 


I 




DRTE 


2^-09 


25-09 


55-09 


2S-09 




!*^9 


LErVG|HTo» TEST 


HOUR 


»-i 


H 


**• 


Xi 


20 ■ 


* W 




2*5 


<v8,t 


66,9 


as 


ioe.5 




ttP-mcieMcy* 




76 


S3 .5 


85 


as. 5 


86 


BMP 




43 8 


78 6 


1 10 


151 


I7IB 


Oil. USED L.B3 


13.38 


IC(934 


106JS 


23 


29.7S 


223e 


OIL. PER ^g 


IU8 


21,67 


3-W2S 


44.6 


59, S 


68,72 


D^PSSJ^-gffl 




0,89 


0,71 


0,647 


CkSJS 


0,630 


OIL PE1 BMP. 




o>98 


OA37 


0.405 


a393 


o398 



OIL COMSUMPTIOIN OP 
2Qx34.'/2 Typg FH OIL- 
ENGINE WITH 3TRNDBRD 



DELRVERSNE FUEL OIL. 

BELTED TO lOQ KW 

D.C.SENER/TTOR, MBDE By 
CffRD EL,. CO 



N.y Mfty I9Q9 



.--"rW 



.--<2l,e 7 



BRBKE r-P 1*3, S 



Q437 



«*jS 



68,72 



Q,398 



„ 8 



3 A 



V. OF FULL L-OflD 



FlG III. 



This engine is of the best design in every detail and 
of very heavy construction. The marked economy is 
shown by diagram, Fig. in, from which it will be seen 
that a fuel consumption as low as 0.393 m - °f crude 
oil per actual horse-power per hour has been obtained. 

Tests have also shown the fuel economy to be as low 
as 0.437 lb. at half load. (See page 248.) 

The cams operating the air and exhaust valves are 




L 


-j 




! 


> 


k 




1 




i 


~1 









LARGE-SIZED ENGINES. 



229 



accurately designed and machined. The engine is al- 
most silent in operation. The starting is effected in the 
ordinary way by means of compressed air, as explained 
on page 105. The vaporizing chamber is heated for a 
few minutes before starting by means of an external 
lamp in a similar way as with Type 2 engines (page 8). 

The regulation of speed is effected by a Hartung 
governor operated by gears from the cam-shaft, which 
actuates through levers directly on the oil supply pump, 
lengthening or shortening the stroke in accordance with 
the requirements of the load. 

At this time only a few installations of this engine 
have been made, but the makers state that under con- 
tinued and exhaustive tests made by independent en- 
gineers results even better than those shown in the ac- 
companying diagram have been obtained. 
oil, EiNGirse TyPE F H 

FULL LOAD CARD MEP IOO LBS PER SQ. IN 




Fig. 112. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
FUELS. 

The fuel to be used in the type of engines here dis- 
cussed is frequently a matter of inquiry, and ac- 
cordingly a brief description of the various fuels used 
is given. 

The Texas oil, which hitherto has not been so fully 
treated of elsewhere is discussed more fully than the 
other fuels. 

The supply of petroleum is produced chiefly in the 
United States of America and in Russia, while it is 
also found in many other countries in small quantities. 

Petroleum is found in the United States in the Cen- 
tral Eastern States, notably Pennsylvania, New York, 
Ohio and West Virginia; in Texas in the region 
around Beaumont and Corsicana, in California chiefly 
in the Kern County, Coalinga, Los Angeles, pro- 
ducing fields. In Russia oil fields are found around 
Baku and in the range of the Caucasus Mountains. 

Paraffin or shale oil, a fuel produced by a slow proc- 
ess of distillation of "shale" and bituminous coal, is 
also produced in Scotland. 

Crude petroleum as it issues or is pumped from the 
earth contains a variety of hydrocarbons of different 
characteristics, and after its sediment has settled it is 



FUELS. 23I 

subjected to a process of refining known as fractional 
distillation, by which process the various hydrocarbons 
are separated and are afterwards condensed into the dif- 
ferent products known in commerce as benzine, gaso- 
line, naphtha, being the lighter products, having a flash- 
point below 73 Fahr. Next the illuminating oils, such 
as W. W. 150 kerosene, White Rose and other brands 
of a similar composition, are obtained, having a flash- 
point above 73 Fahr. The next product is gas oil, or 
fuel oil, used largely for gas-making and also as fuel in 
internal combustion engines, having a flash-point of 
about 190°. Lubricating oils, paraffin, wax, vaseline, 
etc., are afterwards procured, the residue being only a 
heavy liquid sometimes used for fuel. 

The fuels used chiefly in the engines here discussed, 
as already stated, are the crude oils, the illuminating 
oils and the fuel or gas oil: 

Crude Oils. 

In the accompanying tables will be found the char- 
acteristics of the crude oils produced from the different 
Russian oil fields, the American oil fields of the Alle- 
gheny region, as well as the oils produced in Texas, 
California and elsewhere. 

The Russian crude oil is heavier than the American 
product found in the Allegheny region, the average 
specific gravity of the former being .85, that of the lat- 
ter being .79. 

Texas crude oil, many samples of which have been 
used by the writer in the Hornsby-Akroyd oil engine, 



232 OIL ENGINES. 

is a dark, heavy liquid having a specific gravity vary- 
ing from .861 to .915, the flash-point (open method) be- 
ing 180 to 195 . 

An analysis of this oil by Messrs. Clifford Richard- 
son and E. C. Wallace,* taken from the Lucas well, 
Beaumont, Texas, 1901, in which the following, it may 
be mentioned, were the methods of examination, has 
been made. 

The specific gravity was determined in a picnometer 
at 25 ° C, the flash-point was taken in a New York 
State oil tester, the refractive index with an Abbe re- 
fractometer at 25 ° C. The viscosity represents the 
number of seconds required for the oils to flow from 
a 100 c.c. pipette, according to the P. R. R. specifica- 
tions. Volatility was obtained by allowing 20 grm. 
of crude petroleum to be heated in an open dish 2,\ 
inches diameter, \\ inches deep, to various tempera- 
tures for various periods of time, or until the loss be- 
came small enough to neglect. The volatilization then 
goes on below the boiling point. The vapor not being 
confined, there is no "cracking." The distillation in 
Engler's Flask was carried out in the usual way, the 
distillate between 150° and 300° C. representing the 
burning oil available commercially. 

For the purpose of fractional distillation, about half 
a litre of oil was distilled in a litre flask of the Engler 
shape (but larger) supported on a six-mesh iron cloth 
surrounded by loose bricks covered with asbestos 
board. The distillate was condensed in an air-con- 

*See "Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry," Vol. 
20, No. 7. 



FUELS. 233 

denser 3 feet long connected with a Bruhl's receiver, 
where a vacuum of 20 mm. could be maintained. All 
joints were mercury sealed or of solid glass ; access of 
air or decomposition was prevented. A current of carbon 
dioxide was conducted to the bottom of the distilling 
flask to agitate the oil and remove air from the appa- 
ratus. The oil was heated by a ring-flame Fletcher 
burner, and distilled at ordinary pressure as long as 
there were no signs of cracking. As soon as any de- 
composition was recognized, or the temperature had 
reached a high figure, the oil was cooled and the vacuum 
made. The difference in boiling point at at- 
mospheric pressure and at 20 mm. for hydrocarbons, 
boiling under 760 mm. at about 320° C, is 117°, a 
distillate coining over at 317 at atmospheric pressure 
beginning to distil at 200 in a vacuum of 20 mm. 
The distillates were then treated twice with an excess 
of sulphuric acid, washed with dilute soda, dried over 
sodium, and then determinations repeated. Finally, 
one of the distillates was treated with a mixture of 
equal volumes of sulphuric and nitric acid, washed, 
boiled with sodium and examined. 

Examination of Residues. — The residues left after 
evaporation in the open dish, or from either of the 
methods of distillation, are characteristic and of value 
in determining the nature of any petroleum, and as to 
whether it has a so-called asphaltic or paraffin base. 

Ultimate Analyses. — These were made with the 
precautions which have been found necessary in burn- 
ing the polymethylene hydrocarbons, which very read- 
ily escape complete combustion. 



234 



OIL ENGINES. 



Beaumont oil contains a much larger proportion of 
unsaturated hydrocarbons removable by sulphuric acid 
than either Pennsylvania or Ohio petroleum. The 
Beaumont oil has a high sulphur content and carries, 
as it comes from the wells, a large amount of hydro- 
gen sulphide in solution. This gas has previously been 
observed in solution in petroleum, but not in so large 
quantity as at Beaumont. The sulphuretted hydrogen 
is largely lost on standing, and more completely on 
blowing air through it. After such treatment the oil 
contained 1.75 per cent, of sulphur in the form of sul- 
phur derivatives of the hydrocarbons. 

A comparison of the ultimate compositions of the 
Texas oil with other oils used for fuel shows that, while 
not equal to Pennsylvania and Ohio oils, owing to the 
low carbon and high sulphur, it is not inferior to the 
California petroleums in any marked degree. 
Table IX. — Ultimate Composition. 



Carbon 

Hydrogen 

Sulphur 

Oxygen and Hydrogen 

Loss on treatment with excess of 
H2SO4. (Sulphuric acid) 



Beaumont. Penna 



85-03 

12.30 

i-75 

0.92 

39-° 



86.10 

13.90 

0.06 



Ohio.t 



85 00 

I3-80 

O.60 

O.60 

30.0 



*Engler. ' t Mabery, Noble Co. 

Table X. — Beaumont Oil. 



Specific gravity 25 C 

Flash 

Viscosity, P.R.R. pipette.. 



0.912 


O.914 


0.8014 


Ord. Temp. 


IIO° 


Ord. 




75" 


42" 



0.8293 
Ord. 

37" 



Table XI. — Volatility in Open Dish. 





Per Cent. 


Per 
Cent. 


Per 
Cent. 


Per 

Cent. 


iio°C., 230 F. : 7 hours.. .. 
i62°C, 325°F. 7 " .... 
205°C, 400 F. 7 " 

To constant weight — 
105 C, 221 F. : 42 hours 
162° C, 325 F. : 70 
205 C, 400 F. : 49 


19.19 
31-31 

57-57 

4S.0 

64.O* 

74.O 


20~0 
27.O 
49.O 

48.0 
57.0 
74.O 


41.2 
43-0 

59-° 

43.7 
61.0 
75-o 


47-3 
58.0 
63. 

53.7 
71- 8f 
S4.0 



*49 hours. t42 hours. 

Table XII. — Distillation: Engler's Flasks. 



Beau- 
mont. 



Ohio. 



Penn- 
sylvania. 



Distillation begins 

Below 150° C per cent 

150 — 300 C 

300 — 350 C 

35o = — 400° C 

Loss on acid treatment (150 — 

300° C. fraction) 

1 50° — 260 C per cent 

Loss on acid treatment. 
Percentage of acid used " 



iio°C. 

2.5 
40.0 
20.0 

25.0 

10. o 

30.0 

8.0 

7.0 



85°C. 
23.0 
21 .0 
21.0 

27.0 



50 



2.5 



8o c C. 
21.0 
41.0 
14.0 
23.0 
99.0 



2.0 



Table XIII. — Specific Gravity and Refractive Index. 



Below 150 . 

150 — 300 . 
300 — 350°. 
350 — 400°. 



150 —300 



Beaumont. 



Sp. Gr. 



Refrac. 
Index. 



(Amount too 
small.) 



0.8749 
0.9089 
0.9182 



1 473 
1.501 
1.50S 



Ohio. 



Sp. Gr. 



O.7297 

0.8014 
o . 8404 
0.S643 



After acid treatment. 
0.8704 I 1.473 I 0.8006 



Refrac. 
Index. 



1. 412 

I.442 

I.468 
1. 481 



1-443 



Pennsylvania. 



Sp. Gr. 



O.7188 

O.7984 
O.8338 
Paraffin 



0.7791 



Refrac. 
Index. 



I-4I5 

1-437 
1.462 
1.470 



.438 



Table XIV.— Calorific 
op Petroleum, 



Power of Various Descriptions 
Etc. (B. Redwood.) 



Description of Oil. 



Heavy Petroleum from 

West Virginia .-. 

Light Petroleum from 

West Virginia 

Light Petroleum from 

Pennsylvania 

Heavy Petroleum from 

Pennsylvania 

American Petroleum 
Petroleum from Parma 
Petroleum from Pech 

elbronn 

Petroleum from Pech 

elbronn 

Petroleum from 

Schwabweiler 

Petroleum from 

Schwabweiler 

Petroleum from Han- 
over 

Petroleum from Han- 
over 

Petroleum from East 

Galicia 

Petroleum from West 

Galicia 

Shale Oil from Ardeche 
Coal Tar from Paris 

Gasworks 

Petroleum from Balak- 

hany 

Light Petroleum from 

Baku 

Heavy Petroleum from 

Baku 

Petroleum residues 

from Baku Factories 
Petroleum from Java. . 
Heavy Oil from Ogaio 



0.8 



S73 
8412 

16 



886 
820 
786 



0.89 



912 
2 

.861 
.829 
.892 

•955 
.870 

.885 
.911 

.044 

.822 

.844 

.938 

.928 
•9 2 3 
■985 



Chemical Com- 
position. 



83.5 
84.3 
82.O 

84.9 

83-4 
84.O 

86.9 

85-7 
86.2 

79-5 

80.4 

86.2 

82.2 

85-3 
80.3 

82.0 

87.4 

86.3 

86.6 

87.1 
87.1 
87.1 



13-3 
14. 1 
14.8 

13-7 
14.7 

13-4 



13-3 

13.6 

12.7 

11. 4 

12. 1 

12.6 
II-5 

7.6 

12.5 

13.6 

12.3 

11. 7 
12.0 
10.4 



3-2 
1.6 

3-2 

1.04 

1.9 

1.8 
i-3 
2-3 
0.5 
6.9 
6.9 
2.4 

5-7 
2.1 
(N. O.) 
8.2 
(O. S. N 
10.4 

O.I 

O.I 

I.I 

1.2 
O.9 
2-5 



0> X 
OM 



0.00072 

O.OOO839 

O.OOO84 

0.00072I 
O.OOO868 
0.000706 

O.OOO767 

O.OOO793 

O.OOO858 

O.OOO843 

0.000772 

O.OOO64I 

0.0008I3 

0.000775 
O.OOO896 

0.000743 

O.OO08I7 

0.000724 

O.OOO68I 

O.OOO9I 

O.OOO769 

O.OOO8685 



- a-- 

£ a! C 



"* a 



14 



58 10,180 



10,223 

9.963 

10,672 

9.771 

10,121 

9.708 

10,020 
10,458 



10,085 

10,231 
9,046 

8.916 

1 1 , 700 
11,460 
10,800 
10,700 

10,831 

10,081 



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238 



OIL ENGINES. 



Table XVI. — Oil Fuel. (B. Redwood.) 






Locality. 



Russian 

Caucasian 

" (Novorossisk) 

Pennsylvanian 

American 



Fuel. 



Petrol, refuse 

Astatki 
Heavy Crude 



Refined 
Double " 
Crude " 



Sp. 
Gr.at 
o° C. 



O.928 

0.9 

O.938 

O.886 



Chemical Compo- 
sition. 



Car- 
bon. 



87.I 
84.94 



6 

9 
9 

894 

49 1 
583 

OT2 



?£ °*r- 



gen. 



gen. 



Heating 
Power. 



Actual 
Calori- 
metric 
(lb. C. 
Units.) 



1.2 

1.2 

I.I 

1.458 

1.4 



7 
96 

3 

63 

7 

107 

216J0.293 

101 4.316 

8893.099 



10,340 
10,800 
10,328 

10,912 
11,045 
11,086 
11,094 



Calcu- 
lated 

(lb. C. 
Heat 

Units.) 



II,Ol8 
11,626 
1 1 , 200 



10,672 



Table XVII. — Calorific Power of Crude Petroleum. 
(B. Redwood.) 





Sp. Gr. 


Calories. 


Heavy Lubricating Oil, White Oak, ) 
Western Virginia f 

Light Illuminating Oil, Oil Creek, Pa. 

Oil from Dandang, Leo Rembang, ) 
Java. ) 

Light Oil from Baku 


0.873 

0.816 

O.923 

0.884 
O.885 
O.870 
O.786 
0.861 


10,180 

9,963 
10,831 

11,460 
10,231 
10,005 
10,121 


Oil from Western Galicia 


" " Eastern " 


•i ti Parma 


" " Schwab weiler 


10,458 





FUELS. 239 

California Crude Oil. 

The crude petroleum procured in the various oil 
fields of California, from the information available, ap- 
pears to vary considerably in its characteristics. Ac- 
cording to the report of the Chamber of Commerce of 
San Francisco, in 1902 the oil-producing fields of Kern 
River, Coalinga, Los Angeles, Fullerton, with many 
others, in which over 2,000 wells were in operation, 
produced an average daily supply of over 37,000 bar- 
rels. It has been used hitherto chiefly for fuel pur- 
poses, and having in most instances an asphaltum base, 
is most suitable for this purpose. The characteristics 
of the oil vary so widely, however, that while some 
samples can only be used for fuel, that produced in 
other wells would yield illuminating oils on distillation 
in considerable quantity. The following is the analysis 
of two samples of the distillates from the Kern River 
field: 

(Flash test was taken, 
using the open 
method.) 

Gravity 0.901 0.859 

Beaume 26.2 34 

Flash 169 F. ii9°F. 

According to Mr. Paul Prutzman,* the oil produced 
in Coalinga oil field varies from 11.-5° Beaume to 45°. 
The viscosity of various samples varies from 68 to 296, 
while the flash point varies from 220° to 278 F. This 
writer also refers to the refining qualities of various 
samples, from which it would appear that on distillation 

* Pacific Oil Reporter, Vol. 4, No. 35. 



24O OIL ENGINES. 

while some of the oil would give far greater amount of 
kerosene (42 B.) than others, the average yield -of 
kerosene on distillation would be about 14 per cent; 
while the engine distillate (48 to 52 B.) given off 
from the above-mentioned samples would also vary 
considerably in quantity, the average would, however, 
be approximately 14 per cent — the products which were 
obtained being of a lighter quality than kerosene were 
inconsiderable. This fuel is now used on the Pacific 
coast in large quantities, both under boilers for gen- 
erating steam, in gas engines having first been gasified, 
as explained in Chapter XII., as well as in the oil 
engine proper, where it is vaporized by the same 
methods as with kerosene. 

Fuel Oil. 

The oil known as fuel or gas oil, as already stated, 
is procured in the process of fractional distillation after 
the lighter oils and the illuminating oils have been 
taken off. Various samples of this fuel have come 
within the writer's notice, the characteristics of which 
have varied considerably, as will be seen from the 
following table : 

FUEL OIL. 

Specific gravity . . 0.832 .878 

Beaume 36° 30. 2 

Flash-point 144° F. 298° F. 

Fire test 183 F. 247 F. 

This fuel is much used in oil engines in the United 
States. With the heavier grades a slight deposit of car- 
bon is left in the engines, which requires periodical re- 
moving. 



TEST OF FUELS 



24I 



Table — The Calorific Power of Petroleum Oils and 
the Relation of Density to Calorific Power. 

The following are extracts of tests of various samples of crude 
oils, representing the products from the principal oil fields of 
the United States, and were made by H. C. Sherman and A. H. 
Kropf, at Columbia University, N. Y., during 1908, and are re- 
printed from the Journal of the American Chemical Society.* 

Densities and Heats of Combustion Observed 
and Calculated. 



Specific 
Gravity, 


Baume 
Degrees. 


Calories 
per 


B. T. U. 
per 


B. T. U. 
calcu- 


Per- 
centage 


Description. 


15o/15°. 


Gram. 


Pound. 


lated. 


Error. 




O.7100 


67.2 


H-733 


21,120 


20,938 


— O.91 


Gasoline. 


O.7830 


48.8 


11,121 


20,018 


20,206 


+ O.92 


Kerosene. 


O.7850 


48-35 


11,119 


20,014 


20, 194 


+ O.89 


Cal. refined. 


0.7945 


46.2 


11,128 


20,030 


20,098 


+ O.33 


W. Va. crude. 


O.8048 


44.O 


11,149 


20,068 


20,010 


— O.29 


Ohio crude. 


O.8059 


43-7 


H,I43 


20,057 


19,998 


— 29 


Penna. crude. 


O.8080 


43-2 


11,001 


19.802 


19,979 


+ O.88 


Cal. refined. 


O.8103 


42.8 


11,090 


I9,9 6 3 


19,962 


± O.OO 


Kansas refined. 


O.8237 


40.0 


10,981 


19,766 


19,850 


+ O.42 


W. Va. crude. 


O.8324 


38.2 


10,990 


19,782 


19-778 


— 0.02 


Penna. crude. 


O.8418 


36.3 


10,950 


19,710 


19,702 


— O.04 


Ohio crude. 


O.8421 


36.25 


10,997 


19,795 


19,698 


— O.48 


Indian Ter. 


O.84.36 


36.0 


11,069 


19,924 


19,690 


- I.I7 


Indian Ter. 


O.8510 


34-5 


10,958 


19,724 


19,630 


- 0.47 


Kansas crude. 


O.8580 


33-2 


10,772 


19,389 


19,578 


+ O.95 


Kansas crude. 


0.8597 


32.8 


10,766 


19,379 


19,562 


+ O.95 


Illinois crude. 


O.8640 


32.05 


10,867 


19,555 


19,530 


— O.I2 


California Ref. 


O.8914 


27.1 


10,690 


19,242 


I9,332 


+ O.45 


Texas crude. 


O.8970 


26. 1 


io,753 


19,355 


19,294 


- O.3I 


Texas crude. 


O.9065 


24-45 


io,75i 


19,352 


19,228 


— O.63 


Texas crude. 


O.9087 


24.1 


10,712 


19,282 


I9>213 


- O.35 


Texas crude. 


O.9158 


22.9 


10,318 


18,572 


19,166 


+ 2.58 


Calif, crude. 


O.9170 


22.7 


10,613 


19,103 


I9, J 57 


+ 0.28 


Fuel oil. 


O.9644 


15-2 


10,327 


18,589 


18,858 


+ 1.42 


Calif, crude. 



* Journal American Chemical Society, Vol. XXX, No. 10, October, 1908. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
MISCELLANEOUS. 

Owing to the increasing use of the metric system, 
the following comparisons of United States and metric 
measures and weights, etc., prepared by C. H. Herter, 
are added. The unit of length is the metre = 39.37 
inches; the unit of capacity is the litre = 61.0236 cubic 
inches; the unit of weight is the gramme = 15.43236 
grains. 

The following prefixes are used for subdivisions 
and multiples : Milli == T oVo> Centi = y^-, Deci = T V; 
Deca = 10, Hecto = 100, Kilo = 1000, and 
Myria — 10,000. In abbreviations the subdivisions be- 
gin with a small letter, the multiples with a capital let- 
ter. For example : 



Millimetre 

Centimetre 

Decimetre 

Metre 

Decametre 

Hectometre 

Kilometre 

1 Centiare 

Square decimetre 

Cube metre 

Decilitre 

Milligram 

Kilogram 



(.001) denoted by mm. 



(.01). 

(•i)- 

(1.). 

(10.). 

(100.). 

(1000.). 

(1 m 2 ). 



cm. 

dm. 

m. 

Dm. 

Hm. 

Km. 

ca. 

dm 2 . 

m 3 . 

dl. 

mg. 

Kg. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



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244 



OIL ENGINES. 





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MISCELLANEOUS. 



245 



U. S. to METRIC 



1 inch. 
1 foot , 
1 yard. 
1 mile. 



LINEAR 

= 25.4 mm. 

= 0.3048 m. 

= 0.9144 m. 

= 1.6093 Km. 



SQUARE 

1 sq. inch = 6.4516 cm 2 . 

1 sq. foot = 929.03 cm 2 

or 0.0929 m 2 . 
1 sq. yard = 0.8361 m 2 . 



METRIC to U.S. 



LINEAR 

1 m. = 39-37 in. or 3.2808 ft. 
or 1.0936 yds. 

1 mm = 0.03937 inch 

1 cm = 0.3937 inch 

1 Km. = 1093. 61yds. or o. 62 1 mile 

SQUARE 

1 m 2 . = 10. 7639 sq. ft. 

or 1. 196 sq. yards 

1 mm 2 = 0.00155 sq. inch 

1 cm 2 = 0.155 sq. inch 



Fire Insurance. 

The foKowing are the requirements of the New York 
Board of Fire Underwriters for the Installation and 
use of Kerosene Oil Engines : 

Location of Engine. — Engine shall not be located 
where the normal temperature is above 95 ° Fahr., or 
within ten feet of any fire. 

If enclosed in room, same must be well ventilated, 
and if room has a wood floor, the entire floor must be 
covered with metal and kept free from the drippings 
of oil. 

If engine is not enclosed, and if set on a wood floor, 
then the floor under and three feet outside of it must 
be covered with metal. 

Oil Feed Tank. — If located inside of building, shall 
not exceed five gallons capacity, and must be made of 
galvanized iron or copper, not less than No. 22 B. & 
S. gauge, and must be double seamed and soldered, 
and must be set in a drip pan on the floor at the base 
of the engine. 



246 OIL ENGINES. 

Tanks of more than five gallons capacity must be 
made of heavy iron or steel, be riveted, and be located, 
preferably, underground outside of the building. If 
there is no space available outside the building for a 
tank, it may, by written permission from this Board, 
be located in an approved vault attached to the building, 
or in a non-combustible and well-ventilated compart- 
ment inside the building ; but no such tank shall exceed 
five barrels capacity. 

Tanks, irrespective of the method of feed, must not 
be located above the floor on which the engine is set. 

The base of an engine must not be used in lieu of a 
tank as a receptacle for feed oil. A tank, if satisfac- 
torily insulated from the heat of the engine and ap- 
proved by the Board, may be placed inside of the base. 

In starting an engine, gas only, properly arranged, 
must be used to heat the combustion chamber. 

A high-grade kerosene oil must be used, the flash test 
of which shall be not lower than ioo° Fahr. 

Oily waste and rags must be kept in an approved 
self-closing metal can, with legs to raise it six inches 
above the floor. 

The supply of oil, unless in an approved tank out- 
side the building, or in a non-combustible compartment, 
as above provided for, shall not exceed one barrel, 
which may be stored on the premises, provided same 
is kept in an unexposed location ten feet distant from 
any fire, artificial light and inflammable material, and 
oil drawn by daylight only. 

A drip pan must be placed under the barrel. 

Empty kerosene barrels must not be kept on the 
premises. 



Table VI.— Trials of 25 B. H. P. Hornsby-Akroyd Oil Engine, 
Jan. 4, 1898 (Robinson). 



Power or Load Factor. 



Duration of trial hours. . 
Revolutions permin. (mean) 
Explosions per minute " 
Mean effective pressure \_ 

(net) lb. per sq. in \ 

Indicated H. P 

Brake or actual H. P 

Spent inengine friction, H. P. 
Mechanical efficiency, per 

cent 

Oil Used in Engine. 

Per hour. lbs. 

" I. H. P., hour 
" B.H.P. " 

Jacket Water. 

Lb. per minute 

Final temperature (Fahr.). . 
Rise in degrees 
Equivalent H. P. lost 

Indicated Pressure lb. per 
sq. in. above Atmosphere. 

Compression before ignition 

Explosion pressure 

Percentage equivalent of ) 
effective heat from oil . . f 

Useful work at Brake ...... 

Spent in engine friction. . . 

Shown on indicator diagram 

Carried away in jacket water 

Balance lost in exhaust ) 

gases and unaccounted [ 

for 



Full 
Load. 



2C2.6 
IOI.3 

45-4-43-4 

32.3-31 

26.74 

5.56-4.26 

82.4-86 



19-75 

0.61-0.63 

0.74 



67.5 
138 

47° 
74-8 



60 
168 



21 

50 

29 



Two- 
thirds 
Load. 



3 
202.4 
IOI.2 

31.2 

22.4 
I7.96 

4-44 
80 



16.75 
0-74 
0.91 



130 
29 



60 
150 



One- 
third 
Load. 



2 
203 



13. 1 

9.0 

4-i 

69 



12 
0.91 
i-3 

60 

132 

29 

4i 



50 

95 



10 
4-5 



14.5 

45-5 



40 



No 
Load. 



I 
201.5 
100.7 



4. 28 
o 

4.28 



5.75 

i-34 



142 
32 c 



55to75 



The day was rainy, with mist and complete saturation of air. 
The engine was cold when lamp lighted at 10.15 a.m., and started 
working in five minutes. Observations were made in full load trial 
at 10.30 a.m. 



From '" Gas and Petroleum Engines," by Trof. Wtn, Robinson, page 710. 



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Diameter of cylinder, inches 

Stroke, inches 

Price of oil per gal. deliv- 
ered Edin., pence. . .*.... 


< 

c 


Brake horsepower 

Total oil used per hour, lb. 

Oil per BHP per hour, lb. 

Cost per hour (total), pence 

" perBHPperhour.pence 


< 

2 

e 

ti 

H 

c 
h 


Brake horsepower 

Total oil used per hour, lb. 

Oil per BHP per hour, lb. 

Cost per hour (total), pence 
" perBHPperhour.pence 
Light Power Trial : 


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25O OIL ENGINES. 

RESULTS OF TEST ON HORNSBY OIL 

ENGINE. 

By Professor W. Robinson, M.I.C.E. at Grantham 

England. 

Date of Trial \ . . . September 29, 1908. 

Type and No. of Engine. ."D" No. 27,858. 

Rated Load, B. H. P 32 B. H. P. Working Load. 

Fuel Used Russolene H. V. O. Oil 

(Refined Russian Oil). 
Speed, mean revs, per min. . 230.2. 

Duration of Trial 1 hour. 

Compression, lbs. per sq. in. 85. 
Explosion, lbs. per sq. in. . . 260. 

Brake Horse-power 32. 

Fuel Consumption. 

Total Weight 19.6 lbs. 

Per B. H. P. Hour 61 lbs, equals .59 pint. 

Calorific Value of Fuel. . . .lower C. V. 18,450 B.T.U's. 
Absolute Thermal Effic'y- -22.6 per cent. 

The above engine was of the single cylinder hori- 
zontal type rated at 32 B. H. P. Time of starting all 
parts cold, 10 minutes. 

The engine was a standard stock engine, built by 
R. Hornsby & Sons, Grantham, England. 

CAMPBELL OIL ENGINE TEST 
The following test of a Campbell oil engine, No. 
6631, was made June 12, 1909, on 6 B. H. P. horizontal 
single cylinder type. The effective radius of brake= 
24"-25". Full load on brake=62.6 lbs. Fuel consump- 
tion at full load=o.705 pint per B. H. P. hour, at half 
load 0.81 pint, and at light load 0.9 pint. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



251 



The fuel used was Russian refined oil having .825 
specific gravity with 83 to 86° Fahr. flashpoint. The 
maximum load carried by the engine was 7.4 B. H. P. 
The test was made at the Works, Halifax, England. 
Full Load. 



Time 


Net Load 
on Brake 


R. P. M. 


Oil in 
Reservoir 


Explo- 
sions per 
Minute 


10.30 


64 lbs. 


254 


10.5 pints 


98 


IO-45 


61 " 


254 


9.25 " 


100 


11.00 


62 " 


254 


8.4 " 


102 


11. 15 


63 " 


254 


7-3 " 


100 


11.30 


<>3 " 


254 


6.2 " 


100 





JH 


.ALF LO 


AD. 




Time 


Net Load 
on Brake 


R. P. M. 


Oil in 

Reservoir 


Explo- 
sions per 
Minute 


11.30 
u.45 
12.00 


32 lbs. 

33 " 
33 " 


258 
258 
258 


6.2 pints 

5.6 - 
4.9 " 


58 
62 
62 



Light Load. 



Time 


Net Load 
on Brake 


R. P. M. 


Oil in 
Reservoir 


Explo- 
sions per 
Minute 


12.00 
12.15 




258 

258 


4.9 pints 

4.6 « 


24 
26 



Overload. 



Time 



Net Load 
on Brake 

76 lbs. 



R. P. M. 



252 



Oil in 
Reservoir 



Explo- 
sions per 
Minute 

126 



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INDEX 



Abel oil-tester 90 

Actual horse-power 63 

Air compressing, horse- 
power required 125 

Air-compressor at differ- 
ent altitudes 129 

Air-compressors 123, 204 

Air inlet choked 77 

Air-inlet valve. .12, 39, 57, 61, 
78, 145, 172, 175 
Air-inlet valve, auto- 
matic 12, 77, 156 

Air-pump 13 

Air suction, noise of.... 122 

Air-suction pipe 78 

Air-supply (Campbell) ... 151 
Air-supply (Crossley).. . . 149 
Air-supply (Priestman) . .152 

Analyses, oil 232 

Asbestos 58 

Assembling oil engines... 53 
Atmospheric line 70. 71 

Balance weights 30 

Balancing crank-shaft. ... 28 

Balancing fly-wheel 30 

Balancing formula 29 

Barker Engine 197 

Bates, F. H 221 

Bearing caps 55 



Bearings, crank-shaft.. 40, 158 

Bearings, outside 172 

Bearings, pressure on.... 40 

Bearings, scraping in 54 

Beau de Rochas Cycle, 

15, 16, 76, 215 

Beaumont crude oil 232 

Belt centres 115 

Belt, link 113, 115 

Belt, loose 115 

Belt, size of 116 

B. H. P., to calculate 65 

Brake, attaching 64 

Brake, horse-power.. 23. 63, 64 
Britannia Co.'s Engine... 192 

Campbell, governing, 

13, 151, 175 
Campbell oil engine de- 
scribed 172, 250 

Campbell starting 150 

Cams 37 

Cams, setting 60 

Circulating water-pipes. . . 97 

Clerk, Dugald 87 

Clutches, friction 137 

Clutches, friction, advan- 
tages of 137 

Clutches, friction, B and 
C type 138 



254 



INDEX 



Coal oil i 

Combustion, bad 89, 153 

Combustion, complete 90 

Compression (Diesel) . ..5, 25 
Compression in crank- 
chamber 180 

Compression, increasing. . 79 
Compression, irregular. .. . 19 

Compression line 76, 78 

Compression pressure, 

22, 25, 164 
Connecting-rod bearings 56 

Connecting-rods 31, 32 

Connecting-rods, diameter 33 
Connecting-rods, phosphor 

bronze 31 

Cooling towers 100 

Cooling water 19, 201 

Cooling water-tanks 96 

Copper ring 58 

Cost of installation 209 

Crank-pin 42, 175 

Crank-pin, dimensions 42 

Crank-pin, size of 40 

Crank-shaft 26 

Crank-shaft, balancing... 28 
Crank-shaft bearings. .42, 158 
Crank-shaft, strength of.. 26 
Crossley engine described.168 
Crossley engine, portable. 203 

Crossley governing 171 

Crossley measuring device.168 

Crossley starting 148 

Crude oil vaporizer. .220, 231 

Crude oil, Beaumont 232 

Crude oil, California 239 

Cundall engine described. 172 



Cycles, different, discussed 18 

Cyclic variation 35, 36 

Cylinder clearance 25 

Cylinder cover 25 

Cylinder lubricating oil.. 140 

Cylinder lubricators 58 

Cylinder, two parts 57 

Cylinders, different types 

22, 24 

Defective air-supply 164 

Defective oil-supply 164 

Denton, Prof 218 

De la Vergne engine 

129, 185, 226 

Diagram, analyzing 77 

Diagram, good working.. 76 

Diesel governing 217 

Diesel heat balance 218 

Diesel motor 5, 210 

Diesel starting 210 

Direct-connected engine 

and dynamo 117 

Direction of rotation, re- 
versing 154 

Distance pieces 55 

Draining, water 104 

Dynamo fly-wheel 115 

Dynamometer or brake. .. 64 

"Economist" Retort 221 

Effective horse-power 63 

Efficiencies, thermal, com- 
pared 87 

Efficiency, increase of.... 83 
Efficiency, mechanical. .23, 86 
Efficiency, thermal 86 



INDEX 



255 



Electric igniter 5, 15, 152 

Electric lighting plant, in- 
stallation of 113 

Electric lighting, portable.200 

Engine (Campbell) 172 

Engine (Cundall) 172 

Engine frame 43 

Engine (Hornsby-Akroyd) 

140, 182, 211 

Engine, ideal heat 21 

Engine (Mietz & Weiss) .178 

Engine, portable 200 

Engine (Priestman) 175 

Engines (Barker) 197 

Engines (Britannia Co.'s)i92 

Engines ( Crossley ) 168 

Engines (Crossley porta- 
ble) 202 

Engines (American Oil 

Engine Co.'s) 194 

Engines driving dynamos..in 
Engines, electric lighting.. 46 
Engines (Fairbanks- 
Morse) 225 

Engines (Traction) 205 

Engines, knocking. .. 159, 164 

Engines, large size 206 

Engines (Mietz & Weiss 

portable) 203 

Engines, regulation of. . . .117 
Engines, running, general 

remarks 153 

Engines, running, light... 145 

Erecting oil engines 53 

Exhaust bends 41 

Exhaust, choked 83 

Exhaust gases... 90, 153, 165 



Exhaust line 76, 83 

Exhaust silencers 100 

Exhaust temperature no 

Exhaust valve 13 

Exhaust valve, opening of. 76 

Exhaust washer 101 

Expansion line 76, 81 

Explosion 20 

Explosion in silencer. .. .166 
Explosive mixture. .. .10, 15 

Fairbanks Morse Engine.225 

Filter oil 49, 146, 160 

Fire insurance 244 

Flashing point of oil 1 

Flashing point to test.... 90 
Flickering of incandescent 

lights 119 

Fluctuation in speed 37 

Fly-wheels 35, 119 

Fly-wheels, energy of 35 

Fly-wheels for dynamo.. 115 
Fly-wheels, formula for. . 37 
Fly-wheels, keying on. .. . 57 
Fly-wheels, peripheral 

speed 37 

Foundations 113 

Four-cycle 15 

Frame, engine 43 

Friction-clutches 137 

Friction-clutches, advan- 
tages of 137 

Friction-clutches, B and 

C type .138 

Frost, provision for 99 

Fuel-consumption test. ... 87 
Fuel injection. . . .10, 165, 216 



256 



INDEX 



Fuel, injection of 53 

Fuel oil-tank 13, 49, 168, 

172, 174, 176, 177, 180 
Fuels 230, 236 

Gases, exhaust 90 

Gear, skew 43 

Gear, spur 43, 160 

Gear, starting 106 

Governing (Campbell), 

13, 151, 175 
Governing (centrifugal), 

15, 168, 171, 172, 175 
Governing (Crossley).. .171 
Governing devices. . .. .44, 48 

Governing (Diesel) 217 

Governing (Mietz & 

Weiss) 179 

Governing (Priestman), 

15, 176 
Governor, hit-and-miss 

type 45 

Governor hunting 148 

Governor parts, renewing. 160 
Governor, pendulum type. 45 
Governor, Porter type. . . . 180 

Governor, Rites 45, 189 

Gravitation (fuel) ... .12, 175 
Gravitation system 96 

Heat losses 22 

Heat, utilization of waste.. 107 

Heated air 11 

Heat balance 87 

Heat balance (Diesel) .. .218 

Heating lamp 8, 11, 12 

Heating lamp instructions. 141 



Horizontal and vertical 
types 50 

Hornsby-Akroyd, instruc- 
tions for running, 

140, 182, 211 

Hornsby-Akroyd, method 
of vaporizing 9 

Hornsby-Akroyd oil sup- 
ply 10, 180 

Hornsby-Akroyd Traction 
Engine 205 

Hornsby-Akroyd vertical 
type 187 

Horse-power 63, 66 

Ice and refrigerating ma- 
chines 133 

Igniter, electric 5, 15, 152 

Igniter (Hornsby-Akroyd) 2 

Igniters 2 

Igniters "(flame) 2 

Igniters, heating 61 

Ignition 140 

Ignition (electric) 2, 7 

Ignition (high compres- 
sion) 2, 215 

Ignition (hot surface) 2, 7, 10 
Ignition (hot tube), 

2, 7, 11, 148, 151 

Ignition line. 76 

Ignition line, late 80 

Ignition line, too early. . 79 

Ignition, regulating 80 

Ignition, retarding 81 

Impulse on piston 17 

Incandescent lights 116 



INDEX 



257 



Incandescent lights, flick- 
ering of 119 

Indicated horse-power.. 23, 66 
Indicator attaching to en- 
gine 71 

Indicator cock 66 

Indicator, Crosby 67 

Indicator diagram, 

75, 170, 174, 184, 218 
Indicator diagram, light 

spring 88 

Indicator, diagram meas- 
uring 73 

Indicator in place 64 

Indicator, left or right 

hand 70 

Indicator reducing motion 71 

Indicator springs 69 

Ingredients for founda- 
tions 113 

Installation, Cost of 209 

Instructions for running 

Hornsby-Akroyd .... 140 
Instructions for running 

oil engines 139 

Insurance, Fire 244 

Johnston oil Engine 191 

Junk rings 55 

Knocking in engine.. 159, 164 

Large size Engines 206 

Leakage in crank-chamber 19 
Leakage of piston-rings, 

61, 78, 165 
Leakage of valves 78 



Leakage of water into cyl- 
inder 63, 166 

Lights, incandescent 116 

Line, atmospheric 70, 71 

Line, compression 76, 78 

Line, exhaust 76, 83 

Line, expansion 76, 81 

Link belt 113, 115 

Loose belt 115 

Loss of power 165 

Lubricating cylinder oil.. 140 

Lubricators, cylinder 58 

Lucke & Verplank Va- 
porizer 8 

Magneto 4 

Measuring device (Cross- 
ley) 168 

Mechanical efficiency. 

23, 5i, 86 

M. E. P 67, 81 

M. E. P. regulated 47 

Method of vaporizing 
(Crossley) 11 

Method of vaporizing 
(Campbell) 12 

Method of vaporizing 
(Hornsby-Akroyd) .. 9 

Method of vaporizing 
(Priestman) 13 

Method of governing 
(Campbell) 175 

Method of governing 
(Diesel) 217 

Method of governing 
(Mietz & Weiss). 178 



258 



INDEX 



Method of governing 

(Priestman) 176 

Metric measures ...241 

Mietz & Weiss engine 
described, 

52, 128, 178, 211, 203 
Mietz & Weiss engine 

governing 179 

Mixture oil, vapor and air 14 
Moore, C. C. & Co. . .206, 222 

Motor, Diesel 6, 210 

Multi-cyclinder engines... 51 

Norris, William 26 

Oil, Beaumont 232 

Oil, California 239 

Oil, crude 231 

Oil cylinder, lubricating... 140 
Oil engines, driving dy- 
namos in 

Oil engines, instructions 

for running 139 

Oil filter 49, 146, 160 

Oil injection. 10, 216 

Oil inlet 12 

Oil measurer (Crossley).. 11 

Oil-pump 9, 143, 172 

Oil-pump, testing 147 

Oil supply (Campbell) .. .151 
Oil supply (Crossley) ... .171 

Oil supply (Diesel) 215 

Oil supply (Hornsby-Ak- 

royd) 182 

Oil supply, limiting. . .89, 164 
Oil supply (Mietz & 
Weiss) 177 



Oil-supply pipes.. 57, 61, 146 
Oil supply (Priestman).. 15 

Oil-supply pump 178 

Oil sprayers 13 

Oil, viscosity of 93 

Otto cycle 15, 76 

Otto patent 19 

Paraffin ( Scotch) 1 

Petroleum 1 

Petroleum (crude) 

2, 220, 231 
Petroleum. See Tables. 

Pipe, air-suction 78 

Piston 33, 35, 41, 153 

Piston, blowing 165 

Piston, fitting 55 

Piston lubrication.50, 158, 170 
Piston-rings, 

34, 55, 56, 154, 158, 159 

Piston speed 22, 34 

Piston, taking out 158 

Piston, water- jacketed 34 

Planimeters 72 

Planimeters, directions for 

using 74 

Plants, pumping 131 

Portable engines 200 

Portable engines, con- 
struction of 200 

Port openings 39 

Pressure of explosion. ... 20 
Pressure on bearings.... 40 

Priestman engine 14, 175 

Priestman, governing. 15. 176 

Priestman, starting 152 

Priming cup (Crossley) ..148' 



INDEX 



259 



Processes in cylinder of 

engine 59 

Products of combustion.. 18 

Pump, oil-supply 49 

Pump, water-circulating... 98 

Pumping-plants 130, 131 

Pumps, efficiency of 133 

Pumps, horse-power re- 
quired 132 

Radiators for cooling — 99 
Ratio, air and oil vapour.. 7 
Refrigerating machines. . .133 
Refrigerating machines, 

horse-power required.. 136 
Refrigerating machines, 

rating of 133 

Regulation of engines. . . .117 

Retort, "Economist" 221 

Reversing direction of ro- 
tation 154 

Rhumkorff coil 5 

Rings, junk 55 

Rings, piston, 

34, 55, 56, 154, 158, 1.59 

Rites governor 45, 189 

Robinson, Wm.. .178, 220, 250 
Running oil engines 139 

Self-starter 105 

Self-starter (Hornsby- 

Akroyd) 105 

Silencers, exhaust 100 

Simplicity of construction 22 

Single cycle -16 

Skew-gear 43 

Specific gravity...i, 232, 235 



Speed counter (Hill) 85 

Speed, regulation of 154 

Sprayer 13, 14 

Spray holes 147 

Spur gear 43, 160 

Starting 7, 11, 215 

Starting (Campbell type) 150 
Starting (Crossley type). .148 
Starting (Diesel motor).. 215 
Starting, difficulties of 

61, 143, 164 

Starting gear 106 

Starting . (Hornsby-Ak- 

royd) 142 

Starting (Priestman type). 152 

Starting valve 215 

Straight line principle 175 

Stroke, ratio 26 

Suction line 76 

Tachometers 83 

Tachometers, portable.... 84 

Tank 49 

Tank, fuel consumption. . 64 

Tank, water 141 

Temperature of cooling 

water 81, 100 

Temperature, exhaust. ... no 

Test (Diesel) 220 

Test (Hornsby-Akroyd) 

247, 250 

Test (Priestman) 178 

Test (Various) 247-251 

Testing compression. .61, 164 
Testing flash-point. . .90, 232 
Testing fuel consumption 87 
Testing new engine 59 



260 



INDEX 



Testing, object of 59 

Testing oil-pump 147 

Testing sprayer 61 

Testing water-jackets 63 

Thermal efficiency. .. .86, 218 

Timing of ignition 162 

Traction Engine 205 

Tube igniter 3, 5, 163 

Two-cycle system. .15, 44, 177 

Valve, air and exhaust, 

39, 57, 145, 158, 216 

Valve, back pressure 146 

Valve by-pass 45. 180 

Valve closing-springs 39 

Valve exhaust opening... 60 

Valve, lift of 78 

Valve mechanisms 43 

Valve, overflow, oil 146 

Valve starting 215 

Valves 41 

Valves and valve-boxes.. 38 
Vapor inlet-valve. .11, 12, 150 

Vaporizer 7 

Vaporizer, advantages of.. 8 
Vaporizer (Campbell).... 5 
Vaporizer (Crossley)..n, 150 
Vaporizer, difficulties of. . 9 



Vaporizer heated by ex- 
haust 14 

Vaporizer, heating. . . .61, 152 
Vaporizer (Hornsby-Ak- 

royd) 9 

Vaporizer (Priestman).. . 13 

Vaporizer, to heat 141 

Vaporizer valve-box 145 

Vaporizer, water-jacketed. 141 

Vaporizers, crude-oil 220 

Vertical engines 51 

Vibrator 6 

Viscosity of oil 93 

Washer, exhaust 101 

Waste heat, utilization of.. 107 
Water-circulating pipes... 97 
Water-circulating pump. . 98 

Water cooling 201 

Water draining 104 

Water in exhaust pipe. . . .104 

Water-jackets 57, 212 

Water leakage 166 

Water injection 52 

Water space 25 

Water-tanks, capacity of.. 96 
Water-tanks, cooling.. 96, 141 
Worm-gear 43, 160 



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